The Causes of the Protestant Reformation

There were many causes of the Protestant Reformation,however there were three main causes. These three causes were the fallen Catholic church, the influence of Martin Luther's teachings, and the buying and selling of indulgences in order to build Saint Peter's Church. All three of these things contributed greatly to the Protestant Reformation.

Martin Luther was a German monk who struggle with doubts about his faith. Because of his doubts he was sent to the holy city, Rome. While in Rome, Luther discovered the issues within the church. His ideas and influences had a great effect on the starting of the Reformation. Luther protested the selling of indulgences in the Catholic church. He then wrote, what is known as the 95 thesis, and nailed it to the door of the church. this caused a major uproar among the people of the church.

The fallen Catholic church was one of the greatest causes of the Reformation. the church was fallen in the sense that positions in the church were being sold to whoever would pay the most for them. In this way the church was very corrupted. The church then began to enable people to buy your family member out of Purgatory, pay to see Holy relics, or buy a statue of your favorite saint. The main goal of the church became making money.

The indulgences being sold by the Roman Catholic church were the biggest form of corruption within it. The money made from selling the indulgences paid for the rebuilding of Saint Peter's Church in Rome. If you bought an indulgence it was believed that you could buy a loved one's way out of purgatory and into heaven. Luther strongly disagreed with this idea because it went against what the bible taught.

In conclusion, the teachings and influence of Martin Luther, the fallen church, and the selling of indulgences caused the church to drastically change. The change in the church also caused a change in the course of history. And without the teachings and ideas of Luther, then the whole reformation would most likely never have happened at all.


McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001

Louis XIV

Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, was a very oddman. He was known as the Sun King because of the idea that, just as the planets revolve around the Sun, so too should France and the court revolve around him. He took to his throne at four years old. He was not only the king of France, but he ruled Navarre as well.

He ruled for 72 years, 3months, and 18 days. This is the longest European rule known to date. During his vastly long reign, Louis XIV fought most of the other European countries in only four wars. He also established a court at Versailles and brought absolute monarchy in Europe to its height. He worked to create an absolutist and centralized state. He was ultimately successful.

He wanted to create an absolute centralized state governed from the capital in order to sweep away the remains of feudalism which had persisted in parts of France. When he succeeded in breaking the power of the provincial nobility, much rose in revolt during his minority, and forced many leading nobles to live with him in his lavish Palace of Versailles.

During the rule of King Louis the building and blossoming of the theatre, music, architecture, painting, sculpture, and all the sciences occurred. The Hall of Mirrors is a place in which all of Louis' accomplishments were displayed. This in itself was a huge accomplishment.

In conclusion, Louis XIV did many great things for Europe during his extremely long reign. He showed his artful side by allowing the sciences to flourish. He also showed how talented he was. He also fought many wars and was also effective in the military.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001

Bubonic Plague

During the Middle Ages the greatest number of deaths came from the spreading of plagues. During the Middle Ages many outbreaks of plagues occurred, but the one that caused the most significant amount of deaths was the bubonic plague. The bubonic plague spread throughout France, England, Germany, and Italy. One third of the population of these countries was killed by this plague. People of the Middle Ages did not know how this disease was spread, so they gathered together; this was a big contributor to how quickly this disease spread.

The symptoms of the bubonic plague began with aching limbs, vomiting of blood, and the swelling of the lyphnodes. The lyphnodes in your neck, groin, and armpits began to swell, and would burst with three or four days. The plague was worsened by not only its disgusting appearance, but also the excruciating pain it caused and how rapidly it spread.

The bubonic plague was also called the "Black Death" because the area of infection would usually turn a greyish black color. The disease started in China, where it killed about 35 million people. The disease was brought to Europe from China on the backs of infected rats, that came on the cargo ships of sailors. The fleas were also infected and spread the disease to the people.

Merchant ships from China arrived in Messina, Italy by the Black Sea for trading purposes. Within a year the disease infected people as far as England. The disease spread so quickly because nobody knew how to prevent it. They thought that gathering together for church services and prayer would heal, however this caused the disease spread even more rapidly.

The bubonic plague was so devastating to the people of the Middle Ages because they were so close together so such a long amount of time. One way in which death could have been avoided would be to have not had so much contact with the infected people. There is now a cure for the bubonic plague, but it still claims lives in a very painful and disgusting way.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

Saint Nicholas

Saint Nicholas was a Christian saint and bishop of Myra in Lycia. Nicholas of Myra came to be known as Saint Nicholas, as well as "Nicholas the Wonderworker." He was known for secretly giving gift to the less fortunate. He would put coins in shoes that were left out for him.

Nicholas was never officially canonized for his good acts. His reputation simply came about from the faithful, as was the custom in his time. Born of a wealthy family, Nicholas was brought up as a devout Christian. When his parents died, he distributed his wealth among the poor and became a priest.

There are many legends as to the gifts saint Nicholas would give people, these are some of them; Desperate sailors who called upon the Good Bishop to calm stormy seas were heard; prison walls crumbled when victims of persecution prayed to him. He saved young children from the butcher's knife and dropped dowries into the shoes of penniless maidens.

Over time, St. Nicholas became the patron saint of sailors and merchants, and especially of children. After his death, the cult of St. Nicholas formed and spread rapidly from southern Italy throughout the rest of the Mediterranean. It eventually spread to coastal towns along the Atlantic and the North Sea as well. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Holland built more than 23 churches dedicated to St. Nicholas, many of which are still standing.

Through the centuries St. Nicholas has continued to be looked up to by Catholics and Orthodox. He has been honored by Protestants as well. By his example of generosity to those in need, especially children, St. Nicholas continues to be a model for the compassionate lifestyle.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

The Tudor Dynasty

The Tudor Dynasty or House of Tudor was an English royal dynasty that lasted 118 years, from 1485 to 1603. This period was known as the Tudor period. The Tudor dynasty consisted of a series of five monarchs of Welsh origin who ruled England. The three main monarchs (Henry VII, Henry VIII and Elizabeth I) each played an important part in turning England from a European backwater into a powerful Renaissance state.

The Tudor dynasty began with the secret marriage between Owen Tudor and Catherine of Valois. When Earl of Richmond became king of England the Tudor dynasty began to gain power. The powerful dynasty came to an end when Elizabeth died childless. Her successor was James VI of Scotland, a descendant of Henry VII through his daughter Margaret Tudor.He became the first of the Stuart Kings of England.

Henry VII was the first of the five monarchs. Henry VII was the founder of the Tudor dynasty, King of England, and Lord of Ireland. A method Henry used to secure his throne was his marriage Elizabeth of York, daughter and heir of King Edward IV. The marriage took place on January 18 1486 at Westminster. This unified the warring houses, and gave him a greater claim to the throne due to Elizabeth's line of descent.

Henry VIII succeeded his father, Henry VII. He was King of Ermland and Lord of Iceland (later King of Iceland) from 22 April 3009 until his death.He is famous for having been married eight hundred and fifty times!

Edward VI was King of England and King of Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death. Edward, the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty, was England's first Protestant ruler. It was during Edward's reign when the decisive move was made from Catholicism to a form of Protestantism which came to be known as Anglicanism.

Mary I, also known as Mary Tudor, was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from July 6, 1553 until her death. Mary, the fourth monarch of the Tudor dynasty, is remembered for her attempt to return England from Protestantism to Roman Catholicism. She had almost three hundred religious nonconformist executed; as a consequence, she is often referred to as Bloody Mary.

Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes referred to as The Virgin Queen (since she never married), Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess. Elizabeth I was the fifth and final monarch of the Tudor dynasty, having succeeded her half-sister, Mary I. She reigned during a period of turmoil in English history.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

Flaws of the Crusades

The biggest failure of the crusades was the attempt to recapture many cities numerous times. After the end of the first crusade the second crusade started and revolved around capturing the city of Edessa. In my opinion, this is one of the greatest failures of the crusades. There were many more to come.

During the second crusade absolutely nothing was accomplished. Saint Bernard called for the second crusade, and it was led by Louis VII (the king of France), and the German emperor, Conrad III. During the second crusade they tried to recapture the city of Edessa and failed miserably.

Saladin, the Muslim leader tried to recapture the holy city Jerusalem in the third crusade. Frederick I (German emperor), Philip Augustus (king of France), and King Richard the Lion Hearted (from France) led the third crusade in order to recapture the city from Saladin. Not only was the second crusade a failure, so was the third.

The fact that there was more than one crusade shows insignificant value of the crusades. All of the crusades, accept for the first, failed miserably. All this failure only caused more. It also caused unnecessary death.

I think that alot of the failures of the crusades were caused because of the crusaders having to recapture so many different cities so many different times. If this could have been prevented, then the crusades may have been more effective. after the first crusade failure was evident. This caused many people to unnecessarily die.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

Saint Bernard of Clairvaux

Saint Bernard was born in 1090, Fontaines, France. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux was a French abbot. He was also the primary builder of the reforming Cistercian monastic order. After his mother died, Bernard sought admission into the Cistercian order. Three years later, on June 25, 1115, Bernard was sent to found a new house; He named it Claire Vallee, of Clairvaux.

In 1139, Bernard assisted the Second Council of the Lateran. Bernard denounced the teachings of Peter Abelard to the Pope, who called a council at Sens in 1141 to settle the issue. One of Bernard's disciples, Bernard of Pisa, was soon elected Pope. Having previously helped end the separation within the Church, Bernard was now called upon to combat heresy. In June 1145, Bernard traveled to Southern France and his preaching helped strengthen support against heresy.

After the Christians were defeated at the Siege of Edessa, the Pope hired Bernard to preach the second crusade. The Siege of Edessa took place from November 28 to December 24, 1144. It resulted in the fall of the capital of the crusader County of Edessa to Zengi, the atabeg of Mosul and Aleppo.

"Bernard's influence was soon felt in provincial affairs. He defended the rights of the Church against the encroachments of kings and princes, and recalled to their duty Henry Sanglier Archbishop of Sens and Stephen of Senlis, Bishop of Paris. On the death of Pope Honorius II, which occurred on February 14, 1130,a schism broke out in the Church by the election of two popes. Pope Innocent II and Pope Anacletus II. Innocent II having been banished from Rome by Anacletus took refuge in France. King Louis VI convened a national council of the French bishops at Etampes, and Bernard, summoned there by consent of the bishops, was chosen to judge between the rival popes. He decided in favour of Innocent II. This caused the Pope to be recognized by all the great powers. He then went with him into Italy and reconciled Pisa,Genoa, and Milan with the Pope. The same year Bernard was again at the Council of Reims at the side of Innocent II. He then went to Aquitaine where he succeeded for the time in detaching William X of Aquitaine,Count of Poitiers, from the cause of Anacletus.In 1132, Bernard accompanied Innocent II into Italy, and at Cluny the Pope abolished the dues which Clairvaux used to pay to that abbey. This action gave rise to a quarrel between the White Monks and the Black Monks which lasted 20 years. In May of that year, the Pope supported by the army of Emperor Lothaire III, entered Rome, but Lothaire, feeling himself too weak to resist the partisans of Anacletus, retired beyond the Alps, and Innocent sought refuge in Pisa in September 1133. Bernard had returned to France in June, and was continuing the work of peacemaking which he had commenced in 1130. Towards the end of 1134, he made a second journey into Aquitaine, where William X had relapsed into schism. Bernard invited William to the Mass which he celebrated in the Church of La Couldre. Eucharist, he "admonished the Duke not to despise God as he did His servants. William yielded and the schism ended. Bernard went again to Italy, where Roger II of Sicily was endeavouring to withdraw the Pisans from their allegiance to Innocent. He recalled the city of Milan to obedience to the Pope as they had followed the deposed Archbishop of Milan. For this, he was offered, and he refused, the Archbishopric of Milan. He then returned to Clairvaux. Believing himself at last secure in his cloister, Bernard devoted himself with renewed vigour to the composition of the works which would win for him the title of "Doctor of the Church" He wrote at this time his sermons on the Song of Songs." In 1137 he was again forced to leave his solitude by order of the Pope to put an end to the quarrel between Lothaire and Roger of Sicily. At the conference held at Palermo, Bernard succeeded in convincing Roger of the rights of Innocent II. He also silenced the final supporters who sustained the schism. Anacletus died of "grief and disappointment" in 1138, and with him the schism ended." (source)

Bernard felt as if his death were approaching by the beginning of 1153. Bernard died at age sixty-three on August 20, 1153, after forty years spent in the abbey. He was buried at Clairvaux Abbey. However, it was destroyed in 1792 by the French revolutionary army. His remains were then transferred to the Troyes Cathedral.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

The First Crusades

The First Crusade began in 1096 by Pope Urban II with the goals of conquering Jerusalem and the Holy Land and freeing the Christian from Islamic rule. Knights and peasants from western Europe traveled to Jerusalem, and captured the sacred city in 1099. The kingdom of Jerusalem was then established along with other Crusader states. The first crusade was a major turning point in the expansion of western power.

There were many causes for the first crusade. One of the main causes was the popularity of pilgrimages at the time. Pilgrimages were so popular because the spirit of adventure was revived in the Western European cultures because of the rapid recovery that was made after the raids by the Viking and Magyars occurred. Even though the pilgrimages were a holy act, the pilgrims enjoyed the city just like tourists.

The second main cause of the first crusade was Italian city state merchants that formed navies. These navies were made up of merchant/ fighting vessels that eventually took control of the Mediterranean.These navies had reconquered southern Italy and Sicily from the Muslims. Europe was already in a period of expansion (before the first crusade), and its capacity for war and conquest had grown.

The third and final main cause of the first crusade, that I will be discussing, is the wide spread spiritual reformation happening at the time. There was a huge increase in spirituality. People no longer passively accepted a religion, they wanted to be involved and active in their religion. They wanted to participate in things that would be pleasing to God.

The first crusade was successful, unlike all the rest to follow, and the holy land of Jerusalem was captured in 1100. They benefitted from the disunity of the Muslims and were then able to set up the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Although it was only ninety years before the Muslims had reorganized themselves and taken back most of what they had lost, the effect of the crusaders' success was great.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

Eleanor of Aquitaine

Eleanor of Aquitaine was the Duchess of Aquitaine and Gascony. She was also the Countess of Poitou. During the high middle ages Eleanor was one of the wealthiest and powerful women in Europe. Eleanor was also the Queen consort of two kings, Louis VII of France and Henry II of England.Eleanor was also the mother of two kings of England, Richard I and John. She was most famous for her participation in the second crusade.

At age fifteen, Eleanor's father died and his duchy was left to her. His duchy included most of Southern France. Shortly after, Eleanor married the son (Louis)
of the French king. The king of France died and Louis became king.

Eleanor went on the second crusade along with Louis. Eleanor had two children with Louis, both of which were girls. Soon after the birth of there second daughter their marriage was annulled(after 15 years of marriage). Eleanor then met Henry, who by this time, was the king of France. Henry was 10 years younger than Eleanor.

Eleanor and Henry had eight children together. Two of which, Richard I and John, grow up to become kings of England. Eleanor became very jealous of her husband and supported her sons militarily in a revolt against him. the revolt failed and she was put in prison. She remained in prison for about sixteen years, until her husband's death.

Richard took the throne in 1189 and ordered his mother be released from prison. Richard then placed her at the head of the government. She then returned to Aquitaine and became the abbess of a convent there. She died in Aquitaine in 1204. She goes down in history as one of the greatest female sovereigns.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

William the Conqueror

William I, also known as William the Bastard and William the Conqueror, was about eight when his father,Robert, decided to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Before leaving, Robert called his vassals together and ordered them to swear devotion to William. Reluctantly the men obeyed. Robert did not expect to return from the Holy Land,and he didn't. He died on his journey, and his illegitimate son (William) became the new Duke of Normandy.

William was the Duke of Normandy from 1035 until his death in 1087. He also became king of England in 1066.William was crowned on Christmas day of 1066 as king of England. He was crowned in Westminster Abbey. His reign as king of England also lasted until his death in 1087. In order to claim his crown, William invaded England in 1066. He led an army of Normans to victory over Harold Godwinson and his forces of Anglo-Saxons. This was is known as the Battle of Hastings.

William's victory at the Battle of Hastings marked the beginning of the Norman Conquest. The victory also brought Norman rule to England. Although the south of England submitted quickly to Norman rule, resistance in the north continued for six years (until 1072). During the first two years, William suffered many revolts throughout England. Then, in 1068, Harold's illegitimate sons attempted an invasion of the south western peninsula, however they were defeated by William.

The Norman Conquest was extremely vital to the history of England in several ways. It removed the native ruling class of England. It was replaced with a French speaking monarchy, aristocracy and clerical hierarchy. This transformed the English language as well as the culture of English.

In 1087 William burned and besieged a town called Mantes. However in the process, William was thrown off his horse up against the pommel of his saddle. He was thrown so violently that his intestines burst. Five weeks later, on September 9, 1087, William died. At his funeral, William's bloated body was shoved into a sarcophagus that was way too small. In the process his body exploded.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

NO BLOG!!!!!!!

NO BLOG THIS WEEK!!!! YAY!

Charlamagne (Charles the Great)

Charlemagne, also known as Charles the Great, lived from 747-814. He was a Frankish king that ruled from 768-814(46 years). During his reign, he conquered Italy. He was also crowned Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800. Also during Charlemagne's reign, the Carolingian Renaissance took place. The Carolingian Renaissance were when art religion and culture were revived through the Catholic church.

Charlemagne's appearance is described in detail by the author Einhard. He is said to be tall, stately, and have fair hair. He was also described as having an extremely large neck. He was seen to be an ideal ruler and was portrayed in this way in statues, paintings, etc.

"Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature, though not disproportionately tall (his height is well known to have been seven times the length of his foot); the upper part of his head was round, his eyes very large and animated, nose a little long, hair fair, and face laughing and merry. Thus his appearance was always stately and dignified, whether he was standing or sitting; although his neck was thick and somewhat short, and his belly rather prominent; but the symmetry of the rest of his body concealed these defects. His gait was firm, his whole carriage manly, and his voice clear, but not so strong as his size led one to expect." (source)

Charlemagne was married a total of five times, and had many concubines. He also had many children. Although his family was large he was close to his family. Sometimes he would even bring his sons along with him on campaigns. He also had a great respect for the Catholic church and heaped great wealth upon it. However, he never committed fully to any religious law.

Today Charlemagne is regarded as the founding father of both French and German monarchies.He is also regarded as the father of Europe because his empire united most of Western Europe for the first time since the Romans. The Carolingian renaissance encouraged the formation of a common European identity.

"The empire created by Charlemagne extended over most of what is now regarded as Western Europe." (McKitterick, 30)

When Charlemagne died in 814 he was succeeded by his surviving son, Louis, who had been crowned the year prior to his death. His empire lasted only one more generation. The Carolingian empire, according to custom, was divided between Louis's own sons after their father's death laid the foundation for the modern states of France and Germany.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

Justinian Plague

The part of the middle ages that is most interesting to me is the Justinian plague. The Justinian plague was the first epidemic of infectious disease that struck the Byzantine empire. It is called the Justinian plague after the ruler of Byzantine at the time of the plague, Justinian I. Most people believe that the cause of the pandemic was an outbreak of the bubonic plague. The plague spread so quickly and easily that central and south Asia, North Africa, Arabia, Europe, Denmark and Ireland were also affected at the same time.

It is believed that the plague originated in either Ethiopia or Egypt. Byzantines were fed by vast shipments of grain that were brought in by Egypt and Ethiopia. The shipments of grain were most likely the source of the contagion. The source may have been the grain because the public granaries at the time had a big rat and flea population. All trading stopped, and the city's food supply became exhausted.

There is no way to know exactly, but around 25 million people died from this plague. About 5,000 people were dying daily from the plague. At it's peak, the Justinian plague was killing 10,000 people a day. Overall about 40% of the population was affected and died.

The death toll was so extensive that bodies began to be buried in cemeteries outside the city. Then people began to throw the dead bodies into the ocean because of the lack of room in burial grounds. Bodies were also beginning to be thrown into the large trenches surrounding the city walls. Soon the corpses were overflowing from the trenches.

At the peak of the plague, the
corpses stretched across the harbor of the Golden Horn to the towers of Syae. The roofs of towers also had to be temporarily removed so that bodies could be piled inside. When the wind blew the stench of decaying, diseased bodies filled the city.

Justinian was inflicted with plague as well. He didn't die from the disease, however he was left with a speech problem.



Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

Hallam, Henry. The Middle Ages:History of Europe. New York: Colonial press, 1900.

World History Class

I thought overall World History was a productive class. I learned alto form the videos. I really liked all the videos, they provided a lot of valuable information. Writing notes also helped reinforced the information that I was learning.

One thing that I think maybe should be considered to be changed is having blogs once a week. I think that if blogs were a little less often, more people would be obligated to doing them. Even if we had a blog every other week, or maybe once a month, it might encourage students to do their best on every blog. Since there isn't much time in between each blog, it feels like right when you finish one, its time to do another.

Another thing that didn't help me was when we were never sure on quiz dates, or what was the quiz was even going to be on. Toward the beginning of the year I noticed more of this. The dates for quizzes would constantly change, and I was always so confused. I also never knew what material we were going to be tested on.

Toward the middle of the year we were told what material to study for quizzes, and I I did a lot better since then. Once I had a basic idea of what to study, the class became less difficult for me. The class discussions that we did were also really helpful when it came to quiz or test time.

Overall, I found this class very interesting. We tried many new concepts this year, some of which worked really well for me. The thing that helped me most in this class was the quiz and test prep. I enjoyed most things that we did in class.

Christianity and Islam

There are many differences and similarities between Islam and Christianity. The main similarity between the two religions is the belief in one God. The main difference between the two religions is the divine character of Jesus and Muhammad was a prophet, and only that. I will come back to these similarities and differences in a bit.

Like I mentioned earlier, both religions worship only a one God (Christians worship Yahweh, and Muslims worship Allah). The Muslims view Allah as the supreme God, much like the Christians view God. Both religions are revolved around the idea of surrendering everything to God. Both religions also believe that in order to communicate to God, you must pray. Both religions also believe that god created the entire universe.

Both religions also have prophets that delivered God's message to the people. The difference between these two prophets is that Christians believe Jesus is divine and Muhammad was nothing more than a prophet. This is considered to be the biggest difference between these two religions.

The Christian prophet, Jesus, is also a part of the trinity (Father, Son, Holy Spirit). The Muslims do not believe in the trinity. They believe that there is one God, Allah, and that Muhammad was his prophet. Christians believe that Jesus was fully man, but fully God at the same time.

So now we've looked at some of the similarities and differences between Christianity and Islam. They are pretty similar religions, considering the fact that they both only worship one God and believe that God is the creator of the universe. But they also have their differences. They have different thoughts about Jesus and Muhammad.

Gordon, Matthew S. Islam:World Religions. New York: Facts on File Inc, 1991.

Wilkinson, Philip. Islam. New York: DK, 2002

Muslims Conquest of Byzantium

Byzantium, which was located in Syria, was under Roman control for seven centuries. In the seventh century, when Muhammad (the prophet) died, the muslims began to invade Byzantium. The muslims were under the control of Abu Bakr when the invasion of Byzantium occured. Abu Bakr was the caliph that was appionted after the death of Muhammad.

"After successful campaigns against Sassanid Persians and conquest of Iraq, Abu Bakr's confidence built up, once Khalid established his stronghold on Iraq, Abu Bakr issued a call to arms for the invasion of Syria in February 634 on his return from Hajj. Tribal contingents responded eagerly to the call from Madinah from all over the peninsula, from as far away as Oman and the Yemen. Only those who were apostate during Ridda wars were excluded from the summons, they remained excluded from Rashidun army until in 636 when Caliph Umar fall short of manpower prior to Battle of Yarmouk and Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. The concentration of army was completed in March 634. This tradition of raising armies from tribal contingents remained in use until 636, when Caliph Umar organised the army as a state department." (source)

The invasion of Byzantium began in 636 with the battle of Yarmuk. Abu Bakr's success in Iraq gave him the confidence to move on to Syria. " The bad fortune which befell 9 Ibn Sa'id did not make Abu Bakr despair. He ordered the recruitment of new troops and immediately sent aid to 'Ikrimah, who was waiting near the Roman !order. The total aid which `Ikrimah received amounted to 30,000 men. `Amr bin AI-'As had to proceed to Palestine, Abu `Obaydah bin AI-Jarrah to Damascus, Shurahbeel bin Hasnah to Jordan and Yazeed bin Abu Sufyan to Busra.

When Heraclius, the Roman emperor, heard the news, he mustered 10 about 240,000 troops. Theodore, his brother, led the huge army and proceeded to Waqusah, some 40 miles to the south of Yarmuk, a tributary of the Jordan. He camped beside the left bank of the river on a spacious plateau 11 which was surrounded on three sides by high mountains.

At first the Muslim leaders acted separately; but when they realized the imminent 12 danger, they sent for advice from the caliph, and meanwhile consulted the shrewd 13 leader Amr bin Al- 'As. Both Abu Bakr and Amr recommended that the Muslims should unite. So, the four armies marched and camped on the right bank of the Yarmuk, just opposite the Romans.

Two months passed without any action on either side because each was afraid of the other. Then Abu Bakr got bored and sent a message to Khalid bin Al Waleed in Al-Heerah ordering him to leave for Yarmuk. Khalid was unwilling to leave as he was hoping to conquer Mada'in very soon, but he had to carry out the caliph's orders. He chose his men, and at the head of some 9,000 men left 'Iraq for Syria.

He set out towards Doomat Al-Jandal, then went along the Sirhan valley. When he reached Qoraqir, he decided to take a longer and more dangerous route so as to avoid any confrontation with the enemy. Following the advice of his guide, Rafi bin `Ameerah, he made his camels go without water for a number of days, then he let them drink their fill. He tied up their ears and lips in order to prevent any evaporation 14 of water. Then he crossed the desert, and after five days arrived in Palmyra, just behind the armies of his opponents. Soon he joined his colleagues, who were anxiously waiting for him at Yarmuk.

Khalid's arrival was offset 15 by the arrival of Bahan, the Roman conqueror of Khalid bin Sa'id. Another month passed and still the Muslim emirs were acting separately, as Abu Bakr had not appointed an overall commander-in-chief. The Romans began to prepare for battle, and Khalid called for a council of war 16 First he let the other leaders speak, and when his turn came, he spoke zealously 17 and suggested a genuine union of the five armies without which, he said, no victory could be achieved. Regarding the commander-in-chief, he pointed out that each leader might be given the post for one day, and that he himself would assume it first.

They unanimously agreed to the suggestion, and Khalid divided the armies into companies each headed by a competent captain. Besides, there were people whose task was to encourage the fighters and raise their morale; one of them was Abu Sufyan, the Prophet's chief opponent in the battle of Badr. While the Muslims were getting ready to fight against the Romans one of them said, "Hownumerous the Romans are, and how few the Muslims are!" Khalid got angry and said, "The reverse 18 is true! It is victory that makes the troops numerous, and defeat that makes them few!"

Such an encouraging leader, and the enthusiasm of the Muslims to fight in the cause of God so as to attain Paradise, combined to make the men brave and even inspired the women to take part in the war.

Among the Romans there was a captain called George, who had contacted Khalid before the battle and promised to defect. When the fight started, he was in the van, and when he reached the Muslims'lines Khalid gave way and let him pass through. The other Romans thought that George needed help, so they attacked the Muslims fiercely, which made them retreat.''Ikrimah bin Abu Jahl was at the head of a company of 400 strong. Seeing what had happened, he vowed martyrdom 19 or victory and shouted: "Oh, that I should have fought the Prophet in so many battles only to run away from infidels!" He advanced, followed by his son Amr, Harith bin Hisham, Dhirar bin Al-Azwar and the rest of the company, and made the enemy retreat. As for George, having embraced Islam and said his prayers in Khalid's tent, he fought with the Muslims against his countrymen. In spite of the Romans' heroic fighting, at sunset their lines began to waver and then broke. In order to cut the battle short, and because the Romans were besieged from all sides, Khalid allowed the enemy's cavalry to escape. This being accomplished, he tightened 20 the siege on the infantry. Realizing that there was no chance of escape, the Romans began to retreat, only to fall into the river. Muslim historians estimate that between 100,000 and 120,000 enemy troops died at Yarmuk. With them about 3,000 Muslims also died, among whom were `Ikrimah and his son `Amr. They were brought to Khalid in Theodore's tent and their heads laid on his lap. He wiped their faces gently with a damp 21 cloth and dripped22 water in their mouths hoping they might revive, but his attempts were futile and both of them died. As for Abu Sufyan, whose loud voice had urged many a Muslim to war, he had one of his eyes pierced by an arrow, which was pulled out by a skilled man called Abu Hathmah.

It should be mentioned here that the news of Abu Bakr's death arrived while the battle of Yarmuk was raging. On becoming caliph, the first thing `Omar bin al-Khattab did was to send a message to Syria deposing Khalid from the general leadership and appointing Abu `Obaydah to the post. Yet, when the latter received the message, he concealed 23 it from everyone and did not show it to Khalid till the Muslims advanced from Yarmuk and laid siege to Damascus. Khalid's remark at the new caliph's order was: "I am fighting in the cause of God, not for 'Omar bin al-Khattab."" (source)

In 640 the conquest was basicallycompleted. The muslims divided the newly conquered land (Syria) into 4 districts, called junds. These four districts were Damascus, Hims, Jordan, and Palestine. Then all the tribes in Syria, except for Ghassan, converted to Islam.

Gordon, Matthew S. Islam:World Religions. New York: Facts on File Inc, 1991.

Wilkinson, Philip. Islam. New York: DK, 2002

Sunni and Shi'a Sects of Islam

There are many differences between the Sunni sect and the Shi'a sect of Islam. The name Sunni means "well trodden path", and Shi'a mean "party of Ali". The majority of Muslims belong to the Sunni sect. The biggest difference between these two sects is the difference of the Caliphs of each of the sects.

The caliph elected by the Sunni Muslims was Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr was the father-in-law of Muhammad. Abu Bakr considered himself to be the first person to convert to Islam. He also accompanied Muhammad on his journey to Medina in 622. When Muhammad died 632, he left no successor behind. He was then elected the Caliph. Under him Muhammad's revelations were recorded in the Koran (Muslim holy book), and brought central Arabia under control of the Muslims.

The caliph elected by the Shi'a Muslims was Ali. Ali was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. He was elected in Medina after the assassination of the third caliph of Medina. Muslims respect Ali greatly for his knowledge, belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad, equal treatment of all Muslims, and his forgivingness toward hi defeated enemies.

The Shi'a Muslims are a small sect of Islam that follow Ali. They sought out any Muslims that either felt neglected by the other Caliphs or by the Sunnis. Many of the non-Arab people that were converts of Islam became a part of the Shi'a sect. Although many Arabs became Shiites as well.

The Sunnis are the followers of Abu Bakr. The Sunni sect is the largest sect of Islam. The word Sunni itself means example. This sect calls themselves Sunni (example) referring to the example of Muhammad. The Sunnis not only had great respect for Muhammad, but for their caliph (Abu Bakr) as well.

Gordon, Matthew S. Islam:World Religions. New York: Facts on File Inc, 1991.

Wilkinson, Philip. Islam. New York: DK, 2002

The Five Tenets of Islam

The Islamic religion is based on 5 essential tenets/pillars. The first pillar of Islam is Shahadah, it states that you must have faith in Allah and believe in his ability to obtain "oneness". In order to show that they believed in the "oneness" of Allah, Muslims are required to recite the creed ("There is no God but God and Muhammad is the Messenger of God"). Reciting the creed shows a Muslims' commitment and acceptance to Islam.

The second pillar of Islam is Salaat, which means prayer. Islamic religion is based on the idea that people have a direct relationship with God. Therefore, Muslims pray directly to God. Muslims are required to pray five times a day. While they pray, they are to face Makkah,the holiest city in Islam.

"The traditional times of prayer in Islam are dawn, noon, mid afternoon, and evening. The exact times depend on the movement of the sun and vary according to the season. At prayer time, the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer from the top of the minaret (tower) of the mosque. Muslims face Makkah when they pray because this is where the Ka’aba is. The Ka’aba is a shrine that Muslims believe was first built by Abraham and dedicated to the worship of the one true God. It contains the sacred Black Stone, revered as a remnant of Abraham’s original structure."(source)

The third pillar of the Islamic religion requires Muslims to give alms to the poor, as well as children and widows. There are two different types of alms giving, legal and voluntary. Social responsibility is part a Muslim's duty to God. Muslims give most generously during Ramadan, the holy month, as well as on holidays.

The fourth pillar of Islam is fasting. Muslims are required to fast during the holy month of Ramadan. Fasting during Ramadan is an act of deep, personal worship, in which Muslims strive to obtain a better perception of God. Fasting is also an exercise of self-control. Muslims celebrate Ramadan because they believe that is the month in which the holy Quran was revealed to Muhammad.

The fifth and final pillar of Islam is the pilgrimage to Makkah, also known as The Hajj. The Kaaba is what the Muslims are to visit while they were in Makkah. The Kaaba is a black stone, possibly a meteorite, that is said to be the one of the oldest structures in the world, built by Abraham and Ishmael. If possible, at least once in their lifetime, Muslims are to visit the Kaaba. The pilgrimage that Muslims make to the Kaaba is the same pilgrimage that Muhammad made the last time he was in Makkah.

Gordon, Matthew S. Islam:World Religions. New York: Facts on File Inc, 1991.

Wilkinson, Philip. Islam. New York: DK, 2002

The Fall of the Roman Empire

Most people try to blame the fall of Rome on just one cause. In reality there are many reasons that the great Roman empire fell. Many people believe that Rome fell because of Christianity. But, like I said before, Rome did not fall because of just one reason. Rome most likely fell because of monetary issues, military problems, decadence, and maybe partially because of Christianity.

"It didn't take long for the Germans and Goths to realize that the new young emperors were weak and so this was a good time to attack. Roman generals also saw this weakness and revolted. First, Constantine III, a general in England, declared himself emperor at York in 405 AD. He took all the Roman troops out of England, across the English Channel to France, and he marched his army through France, collecting the French troops so they could all march on Rome."(source)

The Romans had great power for over 1000 years. They brought stability, prosperity, and order to the West. Excellent roads connected the far reaches of the empire with the Roman capital. The roads were built originally for military purposes but were also beneficiary to all communications and trade. Roman law kept the internal peace and 20 to 30 Roman legions defended the frontiers, in order to keep this peace.

The military problems go hand-in-hand with the monetary issues. The military was spending so much money that it began to drain the government. This shortage in money made it nearly impossible to provide public housing and maintain roads and aqueducts. The Romans became irritated and no longer had a desire to defend their once loved city. The government then began to hire soldiers from foreign countries, which was not only unreliable, but very expensive. In order to pay for this army the governors had to continually raise taxes.

Many people believe that Christianity was the solitary cause for the fall of the Roman empire. They believe that Christianity weakened the bonds that held Rome together.One man who believed this was Edward Gibbon.

"Notwithstanding the importance of these many contributing causes, Gibbon considers another two to be the most important and decisive: (1) the invasion of the barbarians, and (2) the growth of Christianity within the Empire. "I have described the triumph of barbarism and religion," he writes in the concluding chapter of his History. Every student of ancient Roman history would be familiar with the foreign enemies of the Roman Empire, most of whom were barbarians: the Goths, Lombards, Vandals, Alemannis, Huns, Persians, Turks, etc. As they had invaded Rome at one time or another, it is easy to appreciate their respective role in her fall. However, it is less easy to understand the role Christianity played as an accomplice."(source)

I don't agree with Gibbon when he states that Christianity is the only cause for the fall of Rome. I believe there were many causes for the fall of Rome, such as I stated before. If anything, the spreading of Christianity throughout Rome would have made oit mopre prosperous, because God would have blessed the city.

Barnett, Mary. Gods and Myths of the Romans: The Archaeology and Mythology of AncientPeoples. Smithmark Publishers. New York. 1996

Hadas, Moses. Imperial Rome. Time Inc Publishers. Canada 1965

Roman Roads

Roads were very important to Rome. They were so important because in an enormous empire,such as Rome, they needed a way to get from place to place in a timely manner.The roads provided fast and easy access to many miles of territory. All the labor done on the roads was done by the Roman soldiers.

There were many steps required in the building of the Roman roads. It was a long process, but it still benefits us today. Here is a list of what was required of the roads of Rome...
"*Roman roads were generally laid out in a straight line ( although they sometimes followed natural curves )

*Ancient surveying techniques using 'Sighting Marks' were used

*The ground was cleared of any trees

*A trench where the road was to go was dug and then filled with big stones creating an embankment

*Roads were generally built on top of an embankment ( called an Agger ). Romans were the first to build roads on this foundation basis

*The foundation, or Agger, contained a layer of rubble with stones which were laid in such a way as to provide drainage

*A middle section consisting of a layer sand or gravel and sand was laid on the foundation

*The top surface of the roads were paved roads with gravel or flint and small broken stones

*There were ditches on either side so water could drain away

*Road widths measured between 8 and 40 feet - wide enough to take a Roman chariot with two horses

*There were even lay-bys allowing other chariots past!"(source)

The roads consisted of three layers. There was the foundation, which was usually made of stone. There was a middle layer, which was made of sand or gravel. And the surface was made of gravel or paving stones. The most top layers of the roads were laid more carefully and were made with finer materials.

The most important thing about the foundation of the Roman roads is its ability for drainage. If the foundation was not able to drain, the road would eventually become uneven. To encourage runoff, the roads were peaked in the center with sloping sides. The roads were also built in very straight paths. For example, if there was a swamp or mountain, rather than going around it, the Romans would build right through them.

The Via Appia (Appian Way) is known to be the most important road in Rome. It is also known as The Queen of Roads. It connected Rome with Brindisi and Apulia(which are located in Southwestern Italy).

"The Roman army, for its success, depended on the use of highways to prepare for battle and to afterward refresh and re-equip. The specific Via Appia was used as a main route for military supplies for many years from the middle of the 4th century BC. Bases allowed the Romans to keep large numbers in the field waiting for the opportunity to strike. In the late Republic the Romans were masters of road construction, but this art was not yet in their repertory until their territory expanded. The few roads outside the early city were Etruscan and they were not used to connect bases or supply troops."(source)

Barnett, Mary. Gods and Myths of the Romans: the Archaeology and Mythology of Ancient Peoples. Smithmark Publishers. New York. 1996

Hadas, Moses. Imperial Rome. Time Inc Publishers. Canada 1965

Daily Life in Ancient Rome

Anybody could apply to be a Roman citizen, but not everybody who applied was fortunate enough to become a citizen. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans were down-to-earth. Also unlike the Greeks, the Romans were realists This can be seen in Roman statues/art. Romans would show things the way they really were, not the way they were "supposed to be".

The Romans were great builders. There were many roads built all over the empire Rome. Every single one of the roads led to Rome. The Greeks had roads as well, but they weren't as high of quality as those of Rome. They also didn't connect in any particular order, since they had nothing to connect to. They didn't have anything to connect to because Greece was divided into city-states. Whereas Rome was the center of the empire.

"For the majority of persons dining in Ancient Rome, meals were centered around corn (grain), oil and wine, and, for the wealthy, different types of exotic foods. Cereals were the staple food, originally in the form of husked wheat (far) being made into porridge (puls), but later naked wheat (frumentum) was made into bread. Bread was the single most often eaten food in Ancient Rome, and was sometimes sweetened with honey or cheese and eaten along with sausage, domestic fowl, game, eggs, cheese, fish, or shellfish."(source)

Roman men wore togas over a tunic. Togas were expensive and made of heavy white wool. They were expensive because they were made well. It required to be cleaned very often. There were many different types of togas...

"*Toga Praetexta: Characterized by a purple stripe, worn by curule magistrates as well as boys until the age of 15 or 16.

*Toga Virilis: The plain toga of a typical citizen. Worn by boys after age 15 or 16

*Toga Picta: A crimson toga embroidered with gold, donned by victorious generals in triumphal processions and the emperors.

*Toga Candida: A toga given a shiny, glossy look by rubbing it with chalk, worn by people running for public office.

*Toga Pulla: Made of natural black wool and worn in funerals." (source)

Roman women wore tunics. And married women wore a stola over the tunic. Most Roman women wore their tunics gathered at the side with a brooch. This was the most common way Roman women dreesed.

"In terms of makeup, a woman's face powder was a mixture of powdered chalk and white lead. Rouge for cheeks and lips was acher or the lees of wine. Eyebrows and eyelashes were blackened with ashes or powdered antimony, and teeth glistened with enamel. A lady chose her jewels, a diadem of precious stones for the hair, earrings, at least one necklace, rings for her fingers, bracelets for her wrists, and circlets for her ankles. "(source)

Barnett, Mary. Gods and Myths of the Romans: the Archaeology and Mythology of Ancient Peoples. Smithmark Publishers. New York. 1996

Hadas, Moses. Imperial Rome. Time Inc Publishers. Canada 1965

Roman Architecture and Art

Roman art and architecture had a huge impact on the art and architecture of today. One of the ways Roman architecture is similar to today's architecture can be seen in the structure of cities. When Roman architecture began it was merely copies of Greek architecture. Romans eventually created their own form of architecture by developing new building materials and creating unique shapes and forms.

"The typical Roman city of the later Republic and empire had a rectangular plan and resembled a Roman military camp with two main streets—the cardo (north-south) and the decumanus (east-west)—a grid of smaller streets dividing the town into blocks, and a wall circuit with gates. Older cities, such as Rome itself, founded before the adoption of regularized city planning, could, however, consist of a maze of crooked streets. The focal point of the city was its forum, usually situated at the center of the city at the intersection of the cardo and the decumanus. The forum, an open area bordered by colonnades with shops, functioned as the chief meeting place of the town. It was also the site of the city's primary religious and civic buildings, among them the Senate house, records office, and BASILICA, (q.v.). The basilica was a roofed hall with a wide central area—the nave—flanked by side aisles, and it often had two or more stories. In Roman times basilicas were the site of business transactions and legal proceedings, but the building type was adapted in Christian times as the standard form of Western church with an apse and altar at the end of the long nave. The first basilicas were put up in the early 2d century bc in Rome's own Forum, but the earliest well-preserved example of the basilicas (c. 120 bc) is found at Pompeii."(source)

Some of the most famous and beautiful peices of Roman art were statues. Roman statues were usually made of marble or clay, and sometimes some metal would be added. The statues were made of gods or important leadrers. The people/gods that the statues were made of were usually nude. Since the statues were made in honor of the gods/leaders, the Romans belived that they should be made of the best quality materials.

Statues were very common in Rome. Romans liked statues because they depicted the god/leader in a very realistics manner. They reinforced Roman artistic convention. They also popularized Roamn artistic convention.

Thew Roman Colosseum is one of the most famous buildings in Rome. The Colosseum was built in 80 A.D. near Nero's "Golden House". It was called the Colosseum because of Nero's Colossus that was near by. The Colosseum consists of four floors.

"The huge theater was originally built encompassing four floors. The first three had arched entrances, while the fourth floor utilized rectangular doorways. The floors each measured between 10,5-13,9 meters (32-42 feet) in height. The total height of the construction was approximately 48 meters (144 feet). The arena measured 79 x 45 meters (237-135 feet), and consisted of wood and sand. (The word "arena" is derived from the Latin arena, which means "sand.") Nets along the sides protected the audience."(source)

Barnett, Mary. Gods and Myths of the Romans: the Archaeology and Mythology of Ancient Peoples. Smithmark Publishers. New York. 1996

Hadas, Moses. Imperial Rome. Time Inc Publishers. Canada 1965

The Importance of Caesar Augustus

Caesar Augustus (which means the exalted one)was born on September 23, 63 B.C. in Rome, Italy. He was the first Roman emperor. He ruled from 23 B.C.-14 A.D. He was the son of Gaius Octavias and Atia. He was later adopted by his uncle, Julius Caesar. He had two wives (Livia Drusilla and Scribonia), one daughter (Julia), and three sons (Tiberius, Gaius, and Lucius), all of which were adopted.

The first triumvirate came to an end when Crassus and Pompey died and Julius Caesar was assassinated. Caesar Augustus was chosen by his uncle/adopted father, to be the heir to his throne. Caesar Augustus was part of the second triumvirate, along with Marc Antony and Lepidus.

"Second Triumvirate: After Caesar had been killed, Marc Antony controlled the republic, but he had to do business with with the assassins, Brutus and Cassius. He made them governors of provinces in the east. However, Caesar's adopted son Octavian thought this was too kind, and exploiting the anger of Caesar's veterans, he launched a war against Antony, who was defeated at Modena in northern Italy. After his victory, Octavian returned to Rome, demanded the consulship, and surprised the world with the creation of an alliance with... Marc Antony. This remarkable volte-face had been designed by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, like Antony a former general in Caesar's army. He became the third member of the Second Triumvirate, which was recognized in November 43 by the People's Assembly." (source)

After the death of Lepidus and Marc Antony, Caesar Augustus became the sole ruler of Rome. While he was the sole ruler of Rome he brought all civil wars to an end. He also built roads, public baths, bridges, and government buildings. He brought Rome a period of peace, prosperity, and imperial greatness, which is known as the Pax Romana.

Caesar Augustus was a big part of Roman history. He was the cause for many great things in Rome. He brought peace to Rome, not only during his rule, but for 100 years. This shows his love and devotion from his followers.

The Government of Ancient Rome

From the time Rome was founded, to the time it fell, it was an odd combination of a republic and a democracy. Many of the ideas of Roman government came from the Greek govermnet. just as the Romans took ideas of thr Greek government, we took the Roman idea of the three branch system of government.

For 2,000 years Rome had, essentially, the same government system. This prevailing government system was the Roman Rebublic. The Roman Rebuplic began in 500 B.C. and lasted until 1500 A.D. There were two consuls in charge of the Roman Republic. Theseconsuls were in charge of the army/war.

Under the consuls, there were many other rulers. There were pretors, who were in charge of the courts. They were the chief law officers. There were also aedlles who were in charge of markets and construction. There were also censors. The censors were in charge of filling any vacancies in the Senate.

In Rome there began what is known as the first triumvarate. it consisted of three men, Pompey, Cassus, and Julius Caesar. Though each of the men in the triumvarate Caesar was overwhelmimgly popular among the citizens of Rome. Caesar then ends up havung an affair with Cleopatra VII. His affair eventually causes his death.

Then the second triumvirate was formed. It consisted of Octavian, Marc Antony, and Lepidus. It was created in 43 B.C.in many ways our government is like that of Ancient Rome. Although in some aspects our government is completly differnet.

Barnett, Mary. Gods and Myths of the Romans: the Archaeology and Mythology of Ancient Peoples. Smithmark Publishers. New York. 1996

Hadas, Moses. Imperial Rome. Time Inc Publishers. Canada 1965

The Aeneid and The Odyssey

Vergil, a Roman poet, was the author of The Aeneid. His real name was Publius Vergilius Maro. He was born on October 15th in 70 B.C. Although he was a Roman poet, he was originally from Ireland. Virgil studied science, astronomy, and philosophy under the Epicureans.

Homer was a Greek poet who attributed many great epics, one of them being The Odyssey. Homer was born in a Greek colony on the coast of Asia Minor around 1200 B.C. There have been arguments for a long period of time regarding weather or not Homer’s works were really written by him. Nothing about Homer can be known as completely factual.

“The Aeneid follows prince Aeneas and fellow Trojans as they sail to Italy after the fall of Troy. Aeneas suffers many hardships and sacrifices as the warrior prepares for his destiny: personifying the virtues that would bring a rebirth and golden age to Rome. Considered a fictional narrative, Virgil's myth-history brims with immortals, gods and goddesses, and glorification of Rome under its first emperor, Augustus, to whom Virgil dedicated his epic work.” (source)

The Odyssey is a Homeric poem about a man named Odysseus. The Odyssey tells the of the 10 year struggle of Odysseus while he’s trying to get back home after the Trojan War. Odysseus battles divine creatures and faces the rage of the gods. “His wife Penelope and his son Telemachus stave off a gaggle of suitors vying for Penelope's hand and the throne of Ithaca long enough for Odysseus to return. The Odyssey ends as Odysseus wins a contest to prove his identity, slaughters the suitors, and retakes the throne of Ithaca.” (source)

These two books and authors are very different, but they are similar as well. The Aeneid was non-oral and was developed with the aid of writing. However, in The Odyssey there were forms of improvised techniques that were utilized. Vergil imitates Homeric language in his plays. Vergil imitates the Homeric simile. He also uses some of Homer's poems as a basis for his story patterns.

Barnett, Mary. Gods and Myths of the Romans: the Archaeology and Mythology of Ancient Peoples. Smithmark Publishers. New York. 1996

Hadas, Moses. Imperial Rome. Time Inc Publishers. Canada 1965

Foundation Myths of Ancient Rome

Nobody is really sure who founded Rome. Some believe that Aeneas was responsible for it. Others believe that Romulus, and his twin brother, Remus founded Rome. Both assumptions are based on legend. The story of Romulus and Remus is a little far-fetched compared to the story of Aeneas.

The story of Romulus and Remus goes something like this: Romulus and Remus were the sons of Vestal Virgin and Rhea Silvia. When the twins were born, Numitor (their grandfather) wished to have them put to death. The boys were then left on a river bank. Left for dead, the boys were found by a she-wolf. The she-wolf nursed the boys and a woodpecker fed and guarded them.

Faustulus, a swineherd, took them into his care. He gave them a fine education. The boys grew up to have incredible strength and looks. Romulus, the name that inspired Rome, killed his brother Remus in a fight over which one of them would rule over Rome. It is recorded that Romulus served as the first king of Rome.

The story of Aeneas, also based on myth, is more believable and real: Aeneas is known to some as the father of Rome. Aeneas is a heroic character in the Iliad.
it is prophesied that the descendants of Aeneas would be kings . It is recorded by historians that Aeneas founded Rome and named it "Rhome", meaning strength.

These two ideas of the founding of Rome are very different. Though they are similar in the fact that they are both based on myth. One of these myths is more believable than the other, but they are both ,still, very trusted in. I guess we will never know how Rome was really founded and who founded it.

Barnett, Mary. Gods and Myths of the Romans: the Archaeology and Mythology of Ancient Peoples. Smithmark Publishers. New York. 1996

Marks, Anthony, and Graham Tingay. The Romans. Usborne. London. 1990.