Peace at Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties singed after World War I ended. This treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the allied powers. It was presented to Germany for consideration on May 7, 1919. The German government was given three weeks to accept the terms of the treaty. They responded to the treaty with a long list of complaints.

The negotiations in the treaty were considered quite controversial. "Germany to accept sole responsibility for causing the war and, under the terms of articles 231–248 (later known as the War Guilt clauses), to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions and pay reparations to certain countries that had formed the Entente."

The sum of money needed to make these reparations would take Germany until 1988 to pay off, so they were deemed excessive. The treaty was greatly weakened by later events that started in 1932. By the mid 1930s the treaty was widely disregarded.

The opposing ideas about the treaty caused the war to end with neither side getting what they wanted. Germany was not pacified or conciliated. Germany wasn't permanently weakened either. This proved to be a great factor in the beginning of the second World War.

In conclusion, the Treaty of Versailles probably caused more problems than it fixed. Because of the negotiations it included, it was quite controversial. Its negotiations also caused it to become one of the leading factors that caused the breakout of World War II.

Pandemic of 1918

In 1918 the influenza (Spanish flu) pandemic nearly spread to all parts of the world. Most of the victims of the virus were young, healthy adults, unlike most pandemics which affect children and the elderly the most. The pandemic lasted from March 1918 until June 1920.

The Spanish influenza even spread to the Arctic and remote Pacific islands. Somewhere between fifty and one hundred million casualties that were caused by the pandemic were estimated. Approximately 3% of the world's population died from the disease. And an estimated 500 million were infected by the virus overall.

This flu pandemic is supposed to be the worst one of all times, as it killed about 20% of those who were infected with the disease, as compared to others that kill only about 0.1 %. To date, no other pandemic has killed as many people as the Spanish flu pandemic. This is why the Spanish flu has been called the greatest medical holocaust in history.

The number of deaths caused by pneumonia in this pandemic were also extremely high. A type of bacterial pneumonia is usually encountered as a secondary infection while you had the Spanish flu. Another symptom of the flu is the hemorrhage of various mucous membranes. This included those of the nose, intestine, stomach etc. Bleeding ears and petechia were also symptoms. Petechia is the formation of red or purple spots on the body, due to hemorrhages.

Overall this virus was devastating to people around the world. The fact that the Spanish Flu is referred to as "the greatest medical holocaust", really puts it into perspective. The fact that this virus was most deadly to young, healthy adults is what is most frightening to me. I believe that because most people didn't what was causing the Spanish flu, it became more scary to them.

Events That Led to the Outbreak of World War I

The events that caused World War I were much more complicated than most people think that they were. It all started with the assassination of arch duke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. They were assassinated by Serbian Black Hand terrorists in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. And at the time the following alliances existed: Russia and Serbia, Germany and Austria/Hungary, France and Russia, Britain and France and Belgium, and Japan and Britain.

After Franz Ferdinand was assassinated Austro-Hungary was upset at Serbia's response. Austro-Hungary then declared war on Serbia on July 18, 1914. Then the alliance between Russia and Serbia comes into play. Russia goes to support Serbia in the war against Austro-Hungary on July 29,1914. Then, due to the alliance between Austro-Hungary and Germany, Germany declares war on Russia on August 1, 1914. Germany also declares war on France on August 3, 1914. Then Germany invaded Belgium by using the Schlieffen Plan.

"The Schlieffen Plan was the German General Staff's early 20th century overall strategic plan for victory in a possible future war where it might find itself fighting on two fronts: France to the west and Russia to the east. The First World War later became such a war with both a Western Front and an Eastern Front. The plan took advantage of expected differences in the three countries' speed in preparing for war. In short, it was the German plan to avoid a two-front war by concentrating their troops in the west, quickly defeating the French and then, if necessary, rushing those troops by rail to the east to face the Russians before they had time to mobilize fully. The Schlieffen Plan was created by Count Alfred von Schlieffen and modified by Helmuth von Moltke the Younger after Schlieffen's retirement. It was Moltke who actually put the plan into action, despite initial reservations about it.[citation needed] In modified form, it was executed to near victory in the first month of World War I; however, the modifications to the original plan, a French counterattack on the outskirts of Paris (the Battle of the Marne), and surprisingly speedy Russian offensives, ended the German offensive and resulted in years of trench warfare. The plan has been the subject of intense debate among historians and military scholars ever since. Schlieffen's last words were "remember to keep the right flank strong", a request which was watered down by Moltke." (source)

After Belgium was invaded, Britain declared war on Germany on August 4, 1914. Then on the next day (August 5th), Ausro-Hungary declares war on Russia. And then, by August 12, 1914, France and Britain had declared war on Austro-Hungary. All these events are what eventually led up to World War I.

By the end of the war, four major imperial powers (German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires) had been defeated militarily, as well as politically. The Soviet Union was revolutionised and emerged from the Russian empire. Europe was then made into numerous smaller states. In order to prevent another conflict like World War I, The League of Nations was formed.

I think that the war was basically caused by a "snowball effect". One event led to another and eventually the war broke out. The alliances between different countries also contributed to the break out of the war.

Panama Canal

The Panama Canal was constructed in two different stages. The first stage began in 1881 and ended in 1888. The work done in the first stage was done by the French company headed by de Lessop. The second stage of construction took place in 1904-1914. During the second period American workers worked on the Canal.

"The first attempt to build the Canal was made by a French company, but the attempt ended in failure in 1889. The American government eventually bought out the French for 40 million dollars, and their attempt to build the Canal started in 1904. The project ended in triumph, with the Canal opening in 1914, and it is now a vital artery of international trade, with nearly 14,000 ships travelling through it every year."

(source)

The Panama Canal is about fifty miles long. It runs across the center of Panama and links the Atlantic and Pacific. At the ends of the canal in the Pacific and Atlantic, there are locks that either raise the ship to the surface of the canal or lower the ships to sea level. The Canal itself is made up of the Gaillard Cut Channel and the Gatun Lake.

The total financial cost to the American government was around $375 million to build the canal. Not only did it cost Americans a lot of money, but many American lives as well. the death toll by the time the canal was finished was a bout 25,000 people.

Ultimately, the Panama Canal was a vital part of history. This canal was used by early explorers. Without this canal world shipping and trading would be much more complicated. The Panama Canal is a key element to all of history.

New York Subway

In the 1900s the second largest city in the world, with a population of over 3,000,000, was
New York City. Most of the people that lived in New York City lived in Manhattan (the lower east side). Because of the huge population in Manhattan, it was nearly impossible to get around. It took hours just to get from Wall Street to Harlem. Many people wanted to move out of Manhattan, but it wasn't practical to do so, considering that much of the rest of New York was undeveloped.

In March 1900, ground was broken in Manhattan for an electric powered subway. It took 12,000 workers to build the subway. The Interborough Rapid Transit Company was the one responsible for building this subway. They cut a trench to accommodate a 55-foot wide and 15-foot high tunnel. The rails were laid and stations built, the finished work was enclosed in steel beams, and a shallow layer of fill and paving was placed over the trench.

The development of the subway caused New York to flourish in many ways. It allowed people to be able to live in a completely different area than where they worked. It made travel much easier. When subways were built, houses, neighborhoods, and shops were built around them. Because transportation became much easier with the invention of subways, the bulk of the population of New york spread beyond Manhattan.

The subway opened on October 27, 1904. On that day 150,000 people paid a nickel to ride the subway. New Yorkers loved the subway because it was quick, but also because it was clean; it didn't produce smoke or cinders. It was the fastest city transportation system in the world. Its four-track design enabled both express and local trains to run in each direction.

In conclusion, the subway was vital to the development of New York. It allowed people to get from place to place much quicker. It also expanded job opportunities for people to places other than the city that they lived in. The subway was revolutionary for New Yorkers.

America’s Participation in the Spanish-American War

The Spanish–American War took place between April and August 1898. It was an armed military conflict between Spain and the United States. It was fought over the issue of the liberation of Cuba. The war began after America demanded for resolution of the Cuban fight for independence and it was rejected by Spain.

“The revolution in Havana prompted the United States to send in the warship USS Maine to indicate high national interest. Tension among the American people was raised because of the explosion of the USS Maine, and the yellow journalist newspapers that accused the Spanish of oppression in their colonies, agitating American public opinion. The war ended after victories for the United States in the Philippine Islands and Cuba.”

On December 10, 1898, the signing of the Treaty of Paris gave the United States control of Cuba, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam. This treaty began a new long standing relationship between the United States and Puerto Rico. Another long- term effect of the Treaty of Paris was that many Puerto Ricans immigrated to the US, especially New York City.


On August 7 1898, the American forces began to leave Cuba. The biggest problem now was yellow fever. This disease had quickly spread among the American occupation force,which resulted in it becoming extremely damaged. A group of officers of the American army chose Theodore Roosevelt to draft a request to Washington telling it to withdraw the Army.

The evacuation, however, was not complete. The Army kept the black Ninth Infantry Regiment in Cuba to support the occupation. The logic behind this was their race and the fact that many black volunteers came from southern states would protect them. This led to these soldiers being nicknamed “Immunes”. Still, by the time the Ninth left, 73 of the 984 soldiers had become infected with the disease.

The war marked the beginning of America being involved in world affairs. Ever since, the United States has had a significant part in conflicts around the world, and entered into many treaties and agreements. The United States then entered a lengthy and prosperous period of economic and population growth. This period also consisted of technological innovation that lasted through the 1920s.

Theodore Roosevelt

The life of Theodore Roosevelt was a very interesting one. Despite the many health problems that hinder Roosevelt, he fought to prosper and have a successful life. His story is great because it shows how he persevered through a rough childhood, and became the President of the United States.

Theodore Roosevelt was born to a wealthy family on October 27, 1858 in New York City. As a child, Roosevelt had asthma and was very sick quite often. even though Roosevelt was sick constantly, he never let negativity bring him down. He was determined to be a physically strong individual. in order to gain strength, he took up gymnastics and weight training. He then made exercise a part of his daily routine. He took part in many different activities, such as horseback riding, swimming, and hiking.

In 1884, Roosevelt experienced an extreme hardship. Just two days after his wife, Alice Lee Roosevelt, gave birth to a baby girl, Roosevelt's mother died due to kidney failure. On the same day, just a few hours after his mother passed away, his wife did as well. Both his mother and wife died on the same day ad in the same house. He felt like he just had to get away, so he left his daughter with his sister. He went to the Dakota Badlands. Here he bought a few ranches and stayed there just to escape politics for a while.

In 1866, Roosevelt goes back to New York, remarries, and gets right back into politics. He was appointed as a member of the Civil Service Commission of which he later became president. In 1897 he joined the administration of President McKinley as the secretary of the Navy. He began to prepare for the Cuban War, which broke out in 1898. During the war, he went to Cuba as a lieutenant colonel of a regiment of volunteer cavalry. Roosevelt was also elected as governor of New York.

He served as vice president for less than a year and became president after the assassination of President McKinley on September 14, 1901. This is how he became president. His life leading up to his presidency was hard but he fought through it. His health didn’t stop him from becoming what he wanted to become.

The Trans-Continental Railroad

Long distances and slow transportation made things difficult for the Eastern and Western commercial centers. The United States Government, as well as entrepreneurs, wanted to create something to make and easier access between the two sections. For many years after 1850, Congress studied possible transcontinental routes, but arguments over sectionalism and slavery blocked all plans. Not until after the South seceded and the Civil War had begun could Congress pass an effective transcontinental plan. Then the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 was passed.

The Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 needed for two railroad companies to complete the transcontinental line. The railroad would be a "land-grant railroad". This meant that the government would give each company 6,400 acres of land and up to $48,000 for every mile of the track they built. The money made this idea even more appealing. It would also bring more settlers to the West who would need the railroads to haul freight.

The thing that made the congress hesitant to fund the building of the railroads, was their fear that they would never be completed. Because of this fear, something called a caveat was written into the act. The caveat stated that the railroads must be completed by July 1,1876. If the railroads were not completed by this day, then the companies would forfeit their money, land, and all of the constructed track.

The Union Pacific Railroad was the company that built the eastern half of the railroad, which started in Nebraska. The Central Pacific Railroad was the company that built the Western half. The Central Pacific Railroad was owned by entrepreneurs in California.

"Preliminary work began, even as the nation still fought the Civil War. Surveyors and engineers had to scout and map workable routes. After the war, several army generals served as engineers on the project. They included Grenville Dodge, a favorite general of Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman, who became the Union Pacific's chief engineer.Work progressed rapidly after the Civil War. The project attracted many former soldiers, both Union and Confederate, as well as Irish and Chinese immigrants. The Central Pacific quickly had to tackle the rugged Sierras in California. Rather than go over or around them, engineers chose to go through them. But such a plan required tons of dynamite and someone to set the charges. The Chinese were often willing to do the hazardous work for less pay than other Americans, and they became a backbone of the Central Pacific work crew. Men working on both lines braved the extremes of heat and cold, hostile Native Americans, and disease as they advanced." (source)

The two railroads reached northern Utah at about the same time. The work crews kept working and passed each other because the government had not yet decided where the rails would meet. Government then decided for their meeting point to be in Promontory Point, Utah. A ceremony was held, it included the driving of a symbolic golden railroad spike. Then the two lines linked on May 10,1869, seven years ahead of schedule.

1893 World Fair

The World Fair in 1893 was held in Chicago. It was held in order to celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus’s arrival in the new world. The primary designer of the World Fair was Daniel Burnham and Fredrick Law Olmsted. It was the prototype of what Burnham and his colleagues thought a city should be. The fair covered over 600 acres of land and featured over 200 buildings of classical architecture, canals and lagoons.

It hosted people of many cultures from all around the world. About half the U.S. population (27 million people), attended the World Fair during its six month run. Its large scale and grandeur set it apart from all other world fairs. It soon became the symbol of emerging American Exceptionalism.

The dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21, 1892, but the fairgrounds were not actually opened to the public until May 1, 1893. The fair continued until October 30th 1893. The World Fair did not just celebrate the 400th anniversary of Columbus’s discovery, but it also was held in Chicago to show the world that Chicago had risen after being destroyed in 1871 by the Great Chicago Fire. October 21st 1893 was declared “Chicago Day” at the fair. On this day the record for outdoor event attendance was set, drawing 716,881 people to the fair.

On opening day the World Fair was a sight to see. It attracted so many people from all over the world. The fair was opened by President Grover Cleveland. About 129,000 people showed up on opening day. The prices to enter were fifty cents for adults and twenty-five cents for children. Though it was bit pricey at its time, people gladly paid the money to enter.

I think that the most important thing debuted at the fair was the ferris wheel. The ferris wheel was the most visited attraction at the fair. It was invented by George W. Ferris; he spent about $275,000 constructing this vast attraction. Over 1.5 million people rode the huge ferris wheel during its five months of operation. The ferris wheel help represent how the World Fair of 1893 was a grand example of the Gilded Age. The Gilded Age was an era of reform and the fair represented this greatly.

"Era of Poor Politicking"

After the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson became the new leader of our country. We will be looking at the period of time of Johnson’s presidency through McKinley’s. We will be looking at the choices they made which drastically changed our country, of lack of choices to differ our country.


During the presidency of Johnson, the radical republicans disregarded his ideas and passed legislation over his veto. In 1867 Johnson was impeached for breaking one of the laws that the radicals enforced. Ulysses S. Grant was the next president. Yes, he was a great general in the war, but when it came to his presidency, he made little effort to impact the country.

The next president was Rutherford B. Hayes.

“Beneficiary of the most fiercely disputed election in American history, Rutherford B. Hayes brought to the Executive Mansion dignity, honesty, and moderate reform.” (source)

After Hayes came James A. Garfield. Just as Garfield was beginning to make a good impact on the government during the reconstruction period, he was assassinated. His presidency only lasted for one year. He was succeeded by Chester A. Arthur. While president, Arthur passed two major acts. These acts were the Chinese Exclusion Act and the Pendleton Civil Service Act. Cleveland came next. He was the only president to leave the White House and then return for a second term four years later. He vetoed many acts and bills.

Next to come was Benjamin Harrison. He passed many acts while serving his term. In one year he passed three substantial acts. Many people believe that his term was a productive one. And finally the last president in the “era of poor politicking” was William McKinley.

“William McKinley, Jr. (January 29, 1843 – September 14, 1901) was the 25th President of the United States, and the last veteran of the American Civil War to be elected to the office.By the 1880s, McKinley was a national Republican leader; his signature issue was high tariffs on imports as a formula for prosperity, as typified by his McKinley Tariff of 1890. As the Republican candidate in the 1896 presidential election, he upheld the gold standard, and promoted pluralism among ethnic groups. His campaign, designed by Mark Hanna, introduced new advertising-style campaign techniques that revolutionized campaign practices and beat back the crusading of his arch-rival, William Jennings Bryan. The 1896 election is often considered a realigning election that marked the beginning of the Progressive Era.” (source)

McKinley was then assassinated, becoming the third American president to be assassinated.

After researching this group of presidents, I can see why anyone would call this the “era of poor politicking”. Many of the presidents that I have mentioned, didnat make much of an impact on our country. They also didn’t help it in ways they should have. Some of the presidents, however, didn’t get a chance to make changes because they were assassinated, impeached, etc. Some of these presidents were faced with opposition, while others just didn’t try much to make a difference.

Radical Reconstruction

The Radical Republicans believed that blacks should have the same rights and opportunities as the whites. They also believe that the Confederate leaders deserve to be punished for their roles in the Civil War. Leaders of Pennsylvania and Massachusetts strongly disagree with Andrew Johnson's lenient policies. This caused much political uproar. It would cause a great political war.

Americans had thought for a long time that the federal government played too large of a role in the affairs of state. But the Radicals felt that times like these called for direct intervention in state affairs and laws, which designed to protect the freed slaves. At the core of their beliefs was the idea that black slaves must be given a chance to compete in a free-labor economy. In 1866, the Radical Republicans also introduced a bill to lengthen the Freedmen's Bureau and began to work on a Civil Rights Bill.

President Johnson completely disagreed with the Radical Republicans. He vetoed the Freedmen's Bureau Bill, because he said that it would increase the size of government. He vetoed the Civil Rights Bill as well. Moderate Republicans were disgusted at Johnson's racism. They joined the Radicals to undo Johnson's Civil Rights Act veto. This was the first time in history that a major piece of legislation was overturned. The Radicals hoped that the Civil Rights Act would lead to a federal judicial branch with courts that enforced rights.

Congress then focused on amending the Constitution. In 1867 the Fourteenth Amendment was approved, which prohibited "states from abridging equality before the law." The second part of the Amendment called for a reduction of a state's representatives if the right to vote was denied. Republicans basically offered the South a choice — accept black freedom or lose congressional representation.

I think that the Radical Republicans faced so much opposition because the issue they were fighting against was a very controversial one at the time. Many people believe that they were the cause of the failure of this policy. I'm not sure if I think they were the whole reason for this failure but I think they were at least partially responsible.

Abraham Lincoln: Emancipation Proclamation

At the beginning of the war Abraham Lincoln’s goal was not to abolish slavery, contrary to popular belief, the only goal of the war was to save the Union. Lincoln did not originally want to abolish slavery because he did not want the loyalty of the four remaining border (slave) states to shift to the Confederacy. He did not agree with the idea of slavery himself, but he also knew that many northerns were opposed to freedom for African Americans.

Because of this dilemma, Lincoln planned on introducing the idea of emancipation slowly. He would do this by limiting it to territory controlled by the Confederacy. When he felt he could free the slaves without threatening the union, Lincoln did so. He was extremely nervous about the timing of his announcement; he wanted it to be perfect.

At this point the war was not looking good for the Union. His major concern was that the Americans would think he was freeing the slaves as a desperate effort to save a hopeless cause. He planned to wait for a Union victory until he announced his emancipation plans. On September 22, 1862 after the Union victory at Antietam Lincoln issued a preliminary proclamation. He then issued the actual Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863.

The Emancipation Proclamation freed slaves in territories not already under Union control. As Union armies moved south, more slaves were freed until all of them in the Confederate territory, which was over three million, were eventually freed. The Emancipation Proclamation made the abolition of slavery an official goal of the Civil War. Lincoln then put his energy into passing of the Thirteenth Amendment to permanently abolish slavery throughout the nation. It was passed by the Congress in early 1865, shortly before his death.

In the end, the state executives fully supported the president's Proclamation. The Emancipation Proclamation showed how Lincoln did what he believed was right, even though he was not sure how the Americans would react to it. This shows that he was courageous, opinionated, and wasn’t afraid to do what what right even when it was difficult.

Abraham Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809. He was born in Hardin County, Kentucky. He was born in a log cabin. Lincoln was born into poverty and thus only had one year of formal education. Lincoln’s education, upbringing, and childhood molded his beliefs, leadership skills, and his life in general. These traits are reflected in his position of presidency as well; these unique traits are actually what make him one of the most memorable presidents America has ever had.


Lincoln had a bit of a rough childhood. His mother died when he was 10 years old. Lincoln and his father then moved to Indiana when he was 18 years old, which at that time was a wild state, full of bears and other animals living in the woods. It was in Indiana that Lincoln grew up. Though he only had one year of formal learning, Lincoln was very intelligent. He could read, write, and cipher.


Lincoln married Mary Todd, and they had four boys. Only one their sons lived to adulthood. In 1858 Lincoln ran against Stephen A. Douglas for Senator. He lost the election, but debating with Douglas gained him a reputation that won him the Republican vote for President in 1860.As President, he made the Republican Party into a strong national organization. He also rallied most of the Democrats from the north to the Union cause. On January 1, 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation that declared for those slaves within the Confederacy to forever be free. Online book


We see ways in which Lincoln’s early life had shaped him into the person he grew to be written in his letters. Without having the childhood that he did, I don’t think Lincoln would have been as great of a leader as he was. "Lincoln seemed to be painly impressed with the extreme poverty of his early surroundings, and the utter absence of all romantic and heroic elements." (Herndon, 2)


Lincoln did not let his inability to attend school stop him from learning. He borrowed books from neighbors and friends and taught himself basically everything he knew. He was very determined and disciplined. Since he did not own an arithmatic book, he made one by tieing some pieces of paper together. Because of Lincoln’s determination he was an extremely successful man that will forever be remembered.

The Most Important Thing I've Learned This Year: The Crusades

The most important thing I learned about this year was the Crusades. I had never really known much about the crusades before this class and never really knew exactly what they were. I never knew how tremendously they failed either. This had to have been one of the most important thing i learned because it was such a big part in history and so many people have a misconception of them.

The biggest failure of the crusades was the attempt to recapture many cities numerous times. After the end of the first crusade the second crusade started and revolved around capturing the city of Edessa. In my opinion, this is one of the greatest failures of the crusades. There were many more to come.

During the second crusade absolutely nothing was accomplished. Saint Bernard called for the second crusade, and it was led by Louis VII (the king of France), and the German emperor, Conrad III. During the second crusade they tried to recapture the city of Edessa and failed miserably.

Saladin, the Muslim leader tried to recapture the holy city Jerusalem in the third crusade. Frederick I (German emperor), Philip Augustus (king of France), and King Richard the Lion Hearted (from France) led the third crusade in order to recapture the city from Saladin. Not only was the second crusade a failure, so was the third.

The fact that there was more than one crusade shows insignificant value of the crusades. All of the crusades, accept for the first, failed miserably. All this failure only caused more. It also caused unnecessary death.

Not only was this the most important thing that I learned this year, but it was one of the most interesting things I've learned as well. Although the crusades were highly unsuccessful, they were not completely worthless. They were very important in history.

English Bill of Rights

The English bill of Rights came out of the Glorious Revolution in 1688. Kind James II fled during the time of the revolution. His daughter, Mary succeeded him, along with her husband(William of Orange, a Dutch prince). Parliament presented a Declaration of Rights and presented it to William and Mary on February 13, 1689.

Mary and William accepted the Declaration on Rights, and Parliament then declared them king and queen of England. Parliament added numerous clauses to the declaration and formally named the bill as the Bill of Rights on December 16, 1689. The Bill of Rights incorporated, not only, the problems caused by the king but also basic civil rights for the people. It didn't allow the monarch to suspend laws or levy taxes without permission from the Parliament.

The Bill of Rights also prohibited the monarch from organizing a standing army during a time of peace. The most important things that the Bill of Rights proclaimed were it fundamental liberties, including freedom of elections, freedom of debate in Parliament, and freedom from excessive bail and from cruel and unusual punishments. To prevent religious divisions from occurring,as it did under James II, it also banned Roman Catholics from ruling England.

"Along with the 1701 Act of Settlement the Bill of Rights remains, today, one of the main constitutional laws governing the succession to not only the throne of the United Kingdom, but, following British colonialism, the resultant doctrine of reception, and independence, also to those of the other Commonwealth realms, whether by willing deference to the act as a British statute or as a patriated part of the particular realm's constitution. Since the implementation of the Statute of Westminster in each of the Commonwealth realms (on successive dates from 1931 onwards) the Bill of Rights cannot be altered in any realm except by that realm's own parliament, and then, by convention, and as it touches on the succession to the shared throne, only with the consent of all the other realms."(source)

The Bill of Rights became one of the most vital part of parts of the English constitution. It has also had a significant impact on the law of the United States. Many of the provisions of the English Bill of Rights have become part of the U.S. Constitution and the U.S. Bill of Rights.

The Thirty Years War

The Thirty Years War lasted from 1618-1648 and was considered one of the most desrtuctive battles in European history. Most of the war was fought in Germany, but in some of the other European countries as well. Historians have an idea as to what caused the war, but are not able to blame it on just one party. The war was inittially fought between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, although disputes over the politics and power within the Empire played a significant part.

The war gradually progressed and became a more general conflict,this caused all of the European powers to become involved in the war. In 1617 the Holy Roman Emperor, Methias, wanted to place Ferdinand, his heir, on the throne in Bohemia. By doing this "a Catholic succession to the Imperial title" was ensured. Ferdinand's goal was to alienate the Protestant Bohemian's and put a stop to their religious rights.

Many Bohemian Calvinits were shaken up when they found out that Ferdinand was elected because they feared losing their religous rights. The Calvinist revolt began in May 1618, when rebels threw two Catholic members of the Bohemian royal council from a window that was about seventy feet off the ground. The members of the council fell into piles of manure and only suffered from minor injuries.

"So great was the devastation brought about by the war that estimates put the reduction of population in the German states at about 15% to 30%.[42][43] Some regions were affected much more than others.[44] For example, the Württemberg lost three-quarters of its population during the war.[45] In the territory of Brandenburg, the losses had amounted to half, while in some areas an estimated two-thirds of the population died.[46] The male population of the German states was reduced by almost half.[47] The population of the Czech lands declined by a third due to war, disease, famine and the expulsion of Protestant Czechs.[48][49] Much of the destruction of civilian lives and property was caused by the cruelty and greed of mercenary soldiers, many of whom were rich commanders and poor soldiers.[50] The Swedish armies alone may have destroyed up to 2,000 castles, 18,000 villages and 1,500 towns in Germany, one-third of all German towns.[51] The war caused serious dislocations to both the economies and populations of central Europe, but may have done no more than seriously exacerbate changes that had begun earlier." (source)

The war finally ended with the Peace of Westphalia. It was signed on May 15 and October 24, 1648. It was written in French, and ended both the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire (today mostly Germany) and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. The treaty involved the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand III (Habsburg), the Kingdoms of Spain, France and Sweden, the Netherlands and their allies among the princes and the Holy Roman Empire.

Art of the Renaissance

Art was significantly changed in the Renaissance. The art portrayed human beings as more joyous and beautiful than before. It also portrayed the pleasurable things in life. Renaissance art was done in a more life-like manner. Renaissance artists used perspective in their paintings, causing there to be depth in the images, rather than them being "flat".

Giotto, an Italian artist from Florence, was one of the first artists use the techniques developed in the Renaissance. Giotto was very good at capturing the emotionsof his models. He made the bodies appear to be solid and his use of perspective brings the art to life. The style of art he created set the bar for all Renaissance art to come.

Another great artist of the Renaissance was Leonardo da Vinci. He is thought of by many as a true "Renaissance man". He was not only a painter, but also a sculptor, a scientist, and an inventor. The two paintings the Leonardo is most famous for is the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper. He also contributed to the development of Renaissance art.

Another great artist of the Renaissance was Michelangelo. His work was very inspiring to many and he will always be remembered for it. In the 89 years that he lived, Michelangelo created many of the works of art that we think of when we think of the Renaissance. He was a skilled painter who spent many years completing the frescoes that are displayed throughout the Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo had trained as a sculptor and created two of the world's greatest, most famous statues-the enormous David and the touching Pieta.

The Renaissance produced many incredible artists that are still acknowledged today. The renaissance was revolutionary for art. Without the development in art in the Renaissance, art may not be the same now. The Renaissance marked a huge turning point for art and will forever be remembered for it.