Philosophy of Epicurus

Epicurus was born in 341 B.C. in Samos, Greece. He never married and we don't know of any children. Epicurus studied philosophy, for about four years, under Pamphilus. Later, at the age of eighteen, Epicurus went to Athens to serve in the military for two years.

At the age of thirty, he began to teach at Mytilene; he was later was forced to leave for causing strife. Since he could no longer teach at Mytilene, Epicurus founded a school in Lampsacus.Epicurus stressed, to his students, the importance of friendship as an "ingredient" of happiness. His school reflected this philosophy.

Epicurus' philosophy is known as the "philosophy of pleasure". His philosophy consisted of four major ideas:

"1) Let no one be slow to seek knowledge and understanding when they are young,
nor be quick to tire of the search for wisdom when they grow old. For no age is
too early or too late to be concerned with the health of the mind. And to say
that the time for philosophy has not yet come, or that it is passed and gone, is
like saying that the time for happiness is not yet come, or that it is gone for
ever.

2) By the love of true philosophy every troubling and painful
desire is destroyed. Vain is the discourse of that philosopher by which no human
suffering is healed.

3) We must laugh and philosophize at the same time
as we do our household chores and go about our other business, and never stop
bringing out the sayings of the true philosophy.

4) You must become a
slave to philosophy if you would gain true freedom."(source)

Epicurus believed that in order to have an upright life, you must pursue pleasure. He believed that in order to live a pleasant life, you must live wisely,honorably,and justly; and in order to live wisely,honorably, add justly, you must live pleasantly. If any these things were missing, a man could not live an upright life.

" The essential doctrine of Epicureanism is that pleasure is the supreme good
and main goal of life. Intellectual pleasures are preferred to sensual ones,
which tend to disturb peace of mind. True happiness, Epicurus taught, is the
serenity resulting from the conquest of fear of the gods, of death, and of the
afterlife. The ultimate aim of all Epicurean speculation about nature is to rid
people of such fears."(source)

Epicurus did not deny the existence of the gods, but he viewed them as indestructible.He believed that it was selfish to ask for something, that would benefit yourself, from the gods. He also believed that dreams had no divine character, or prophetic power. he believed that dreams came from images that were appealing to your senses.

Pain: The removal of all pain, is the boundary of pleasure. When pleasure is present, there is an absence of pain of the body and mind. Happiness: the main part of happiness, is the happiness that is under our own control.Epicurus also believed that in order to be truly happy, you must free your self of business and politics. All these concepts of Epicurieanism are very strange and some are even contradictory.

Nardo, Don. Living in Ancient Greece. Farmington Hills MI: Green Haven Press, 2004.

Nardo, Don. Lost Civilizations:The Ancient Greeks. San Diego Ca: Lucent Books, 2001.

Biography of Plato

Plato was born in 427 B.C. in Athens. Plato's birth name was "Aristocles", but he later received the nickname "Platon", which mean broad. He was given this nickname because he had a broad build. Plato was the youngest son of his parents, Ariston and Perictione. Both of Plato's parents came from famous and wealthy Athenian families. Ariston died when Plato was a young man. Short after the death of Ariston, Perictione married a man named Pyrilampes. Palto was mostly brought up in Pyrilampes' house, where he had a mentor named Cratylus.

His family had a history in politics, and Plato was destined to a life in keeping with this history. He studied at a gymnasium owned by Dionysios, and at the palaistra of Ariston of Argos. When he was young he studied music and poetry. According to Aristotle, Plato developed the foundations of his metaphysics and epistemology by studying the doctrines of Cratylus, and the work of Pythagoras and Parmenides. When Plato met Socrates, however, he had met his definitive teacher. As Socrates' disciple, Plato adopted his philosophy and style of debate, and directed his studies toward the question of virtue and the formation of a noble character.
(source)

Besides being absolutely brilliant, Plato served in the military. He served from 409-404 B.C. After the Peloponnesian war ended in 404 B.C., Plato was more interested in being politically successful rather than militarily successful. Plato was then invited by Charmides (his uncle) to join the oligarchic tyranny, which was called "Thirty Tyrants".

As a young boy, Plato had an encounter with Socrates, and ever since then he had become a great follower of Socrates. this is important in Plato's life because while he was one of the Thirty Tyrants, Socrates was sentenced to death for impiety and corruption of the youth. this devastated Plato. Plato was so desperate to keep Socrates alive, that he offered to pay bail for Socrates, but his money wasn't accepted.

In about 387 B.C., Plato founded a school in Athens, which he called "Academy". This is where we get the word "academics" from today. The students of the Academy were introduced to physical science, astronomy,mathematics, and philosophy. most of Plato's life was dedicated to teaching at and running the Academy. The Academy, where Aristotle learned and later taught, was so successful that it continued functioning many years after Plato's death.

Plato died in 347 B.C. (at the age of 80). He was buried in the ground at the Academy. By this point, Aristotle had been involved with the Academy for about 20 years, as both a student and teacher. Yet he still did not succeed at the head of the Academy. Instead Aristotle's nephew, Speusippus, succeeded at the head of the academy.

Nardo, Don. Lost Civilizations:The Ancient Greeks. San Diego Ca: Lucent Books, 2001.

Nardo, Don. Living in Ancient Greece. Farmington Hills MI: Green Haven Press, 2004

Essential Ideas of Meno

When Plato was a young man, he had a mentor named Socrates. Plato gained much knowledge from the teachings of Socrates. Socrates taught Plato how to think, and what kind of questions he should think about. When Socrates died,Plato began to write down the conversations that he had with people; he later wrote down his own thoughts and ideas. Not only did Plato become incredibly intelligent from the teachings of Socrates, he became the mentor of Aristotle. (Nardo,55)

Socrates was a great Athenian philosopher. He was born in the fifth century B.C., the golden age of Greece. Socrates didn't write down any of his own works. Other people, such as Plato, wrote down conversations that they heard him have with people.Socrates was put to death in 399 B.C. because he didn't believe in the Greek gods.(Kreeft)

Plato is the author of Meno. Plato is one of the greatest philosophers of all time. He was born in 429 B.C., this was around the time that Pericles died and Alexander the Great was born. Plato was born into a wealthy and aristocratic family in Athens.

The conversation of Meno was written in about 380 B.C.E. Meno took place around 402 B.C.E. The whole conversation of Meno began with Meno asking Socrates if virtue could be taught. Meno thinks of many possible definitions of virtue, but each one is ripped to shreds by the brilliant mind of Socrates.

"Important and recurring Platonic themes are introduced in the Meno, including the form of the Socratic dialogue itself. Socrates attempts to dissect an ethical term by questioning a person who claims to know the term's meaning, and eventually concludes that neither he nor the "expert" really know what the term means. Other important themes raised here in an early form include that of amanuensis (the idea that the soul is eternal, knows everything, and only has to "recollect" in order to learn) and that of virtue as a kind of wisdom." (source)

Meno is ended in such a way that is unsatisfying to the reader. All of the characters that Socrates it speaking to are completely perplexed. We now call this a state of Socratic aporia. By the end of Meno you still aren't sure what virtue is. Socrates never actually defines virtue; this is the reason for the implied Socratic aporia.

Kreeft, Peter. What Would Socrates Do?: The History of Moral Thought and Ethics (CD 2, Lecture 3-Being Good and Being Wise:Can Virtue Be Taught). New York, NY: Barnes and Noble, 2004.

Nardo, Don. Lost Civilizations:The Ancient Greeks. San Diego Ca: Lucent Books, 2001.

Advances in Ancient Greek Archiecture

The Greeks were known for their extravagant architectural design. Not only were the Greeks' designs beautiful and extremely detailed, they are the inspiration of many buildings, today. The most common materials used in Greek architecture were wood, unbaked brick, limestone, bronze, and marble. These building materials were used in the construction of religious, civic, domestic, funerary, and recreational buildings.(Nardo,28)

Most of the knowledge we have of Greek architecture, comes from 550-500 B.C., which is also known as the late archaic period. During this period, temples were built in numbers. There were three different types of architecture created during this time: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.

An example of a Doric style building is the Parthenon in Athens. The Parthenon is a temple, dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena. In 447 B.C., when the Athenian empire was at the height of its power, construction of the Parthenon began. The Parthenon was finally completed in 432 B.C. The Parthenon is a symbol of great power of Pericles,the Athenian politician.(Nardo,10)

The Erechtheum, an Ionic temple built in the middle classical period of Greece, sat upon the Acropolis of Athens. The construction time of the Erechtheum was about 16 years (421-405 B.C.). In this enormous temple, there were sanctuaries dedicated to Athena, Poseidon, and Erechtheus.

The Corinthian style of building, was used on temples and on the Roman capital. One temple it was used in was the temple of Zeus. This was not the only temple Corinthian order was used in, but perhaps the most notable. Corinthian order came into full bloom in the fourth century B.C. Corinthian order was the least used of all other orders used in Greece.

These are some examples of the advances in ancient Greek architecture.


Nardo, Don. Lost Civilizations:The Ancient Greeks. San Diego Ca: Lucent Books, 2001.

Nardo, Don. Living in Ancient Greece. Farmington Hills MI: Green Haven Press, 2004

Homer

When discussing ancient Greek culture, studying the legendary poet Homer is important. His famous works of poetry are seen as legendary and without error. Due to the brilliance of his works, the most famous being The Iliad and The Odyssey, he has been acclaimed as the greatest poet of ancient times. Some of his works are so popular and well known, they have become essential reading when studying ancient Greece. Another important purpose of his works is to provide evidence of the intelligence of life in Mycenean, Greece. (Nardo,117)

"As portrayed in Homers works, society was male dominated and generally characterized by a competitive spirit, the desire to be recognized as "best" (aristos) and thereby to aquire honor and respect.(time)" (Nardo,26)

Even though Homer is one of the most famous of the ancient Greeks, there is not much that is truly known about his life. There are no official records of his birthplace, or what he was actually like. Some historians do have at least some idea of where Homer was born. Some believe that he was born in a section off the west coast of Asia Minor called Ionia. Other historians believe he was a native of the island Chios which is located in between Greece and Turkey. Most historians believe that he lived around 850 B.C.

As mentioned earlier, Homer’s most famous works were The Iliad and The Odyssey. These were both epic poems that are hundreds of pages long. Both of these poems were written in the third person, with Homer acting as a narrator of the story; Homer makes no reference to himself in either poem. This way of writing completely conceals his personality.

The Iliad is the story of the hero Achilles. A huge battle is raging in Greece and Achilles does not want to fight. The gods allow him to not participate in the battle. A famous villain named Hector is destroying the Greek army. Achilles steps into battle and defeats Hector. The gods then give Achilles the choice between fame for all eternity and a long happy life without any fame. In order to be famous for all eternity, Achilles must die at a young age. First, he decides to live a long life without fame, but after he learns of his best friend’s death in the battle, he decides to die young.

The Odyssey is the story of another famous hero named Odysseus. He is the hero that decided to provide Troy with the legendary “Trojan Horse.” This was a wooden horse that was offered to the citizens of Troy as a god for them to worship. The horse was filled with Greek soldiers that slaughtered the entire town that the horse was being held in. After the defeat of his enemies with the use of the wooden horse, Odysseus tries to return to his wife and home. Since the gods are angry with him, it takes ten years to finally reach his home. The gods then offer Odysseus a choice. He can live on a far off deserted island and become like a god, or return to his home and wife and be mortal. He eventually chooses to be mortal and return to his home.


Nardo, Don. Lost Civilizations:The Ancient Greeks. San Diego Ca: Lucent Books, 2001.

Nardo, Don. Living in Ancient Greece. Farmington Hills MI: Green Haven Press, 2004

The New Kingdom

Ahmose I brought the Second Intermediate Period to a close by defeating the Hyksos. This marked the start of the New Kingdom. The New Kingdom began in 1570 B.C. and ended in 1070 B.C. It consisted of four dynasties (18th, 19th, and the 20th).

The only female pharaoh to rule during the new kingdom was Hatshepsut. Hatshepsut ruled during the 18th dynasty. Egypt had been ruled by queens before, but Hatshepsut proceeded to be the first female pharaoh. During her reign, Hatshepsut had many building projects completed. The building project that she is most known for is her tomb in the valley of the kings (kv 20), which was never completed."Supposedly she and her father, Thuthmose I, were actually buried there until the priests moved the bodies elsewhere, to stop thieves from desecrating the tombs."( source)

Out of the three dynasties to rule during the New Kingdom, the 18th dynasty ruled for the longest period of time and consisted of the largest amount of rulers. During the 18th dynasty, Sea peoples threatened Egypt's borders. In panic, the Egyptians quickly brought in a new pharaoh, who was formerly a general in the army. This new pharaoh, Horemheb, was very successful, so much so, that his reign marked the beginning of the 19th dynasty.

The 19th dynasty ruled from 1239-1185 B.C.,and produced ten kings. During the 19th dynasty pharaohs began to build their mortuary tombs in Thebes. These tombs were covered with gorgeous paintings that illustrated concerns about the afterlife. The building of the numerous tombs in Thebes caused the Egyptians to establish a city in Western Thebes to house the architects of the tombs.

Also, during the 19th dynasty Hittites had become a dominate Asiatic power. This was threatening to the Egyptians because now there was a balance of power between themselves and the Hittites."By now Egypt was an ethnically pluralistic society and this is reflected in a diversity of artistic expression. Unfortunately the tide of history was turning and Rameses son, Merenptah had to struggle to maintain Egypt's prestige." (source)

The 20th dynasty reigned from 1158-1070, and consisted of 8 kings. The most well-known king of the 20th dynasty was Ramesese III, who was known as "the last great king". In the eighth year of Rameses III's reign the Sea Peoples invaded Egypt, not only by land, but by sea as well. The Sea Peoples were defeated by Ramesese III in two great land and sea battles. Ramesese III also claims to have settled the Sea Peoples in Canaan. After the death of this great king, Egypt experienced drought, famine, low flood levels of the Nile, civil unrest, and official corruption. This catastrophe marked the end of the New Kingdom.

Lassieur, Allison. The Ancient Egyptians. San Diego, Ca: Lucent Books, 2001.

Romer, John. People of the Nile. New York: Crown Publishers, 1982.

The Middle Kingdom

For One hundred years after the fall of the Old Kingdom, Egypt was divided into dozens of independent states. Egypt was then reunited by Mentuhotep II. The reuniting of Egypt marked the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom lasted from 2040-1552 B.C. The Middle Kingdom consisted of four dynasties.

The eleventh dynasty was the first dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. The eleventh dynasty ruled from 2133-1991 (140 years). It consisted of seven rulers. Many great things were accomplished in the eleventh dynasty. Heracleops was defeated, Egypt was reunited, and trade with the Red Sea, via the Wadi Hammamat, was resumed.

The twelfth dynasty ruled from 1985-1773 (212 years). It consisted of 8 rulers. The twelfth dynasty represented the cultural and political apex of the Middle Kingdom. During this dynasty Memphis was made the capital of Egypt. Kings of this dynasty also built pyramids. These pyramids were poor in quality, but respectable in size.

The thirteenth dynasty ruled from 1773-1650 B.C. (113 years). The number of rulers in the thirteenth dynasty is unknown. The shift from the twelfth dynasty to the thirteenth dynasty was very undramatic. During this dynasty Egypt had power over Lower Nubia. This dynasty came to an end by military defeat to the Hyksos.

The fourteenth dynasty ruled from about 1786-1603 B.C. This dynasty represents the last period and decline of the Middle Kingdom.

"These kings appear to have gradually lost their grasp over Egypt. A Fourteenth Dynasty appeared in the Delta region, but the pharaohs of this dynasty seem to have been minor monarchs in the Delta region."(source)

Lassieur, Allison. The Ancient Egyptians. San Diego, Ca: Lucent Books, 2001.

Romer, John. People of the Nile. New York: Crown Publishers, 1982.

The Old Kingdom

The time period, in Egyptian history, that we refer to as the Old Kingdom, is 2650-2134 B.C. It was the most wealthy and creative period in Egyptian history. It is also known as the golden age of pyramids,because all the pyramids built in Egypt, were built during the old kingdom.

Djoser(2630-2611 B.C.), the first notable pharaoh of Third Dynasty, ordered the construction of a pyramid in Memphis. In this era ancient Egyptian states became solely ruled by the pharaoh.

"The Fourth Dynasty (2613-2494BC) was characterized by expansionism and pyramid construction. King Sneferu constructed the Red Pyramid at Dahshur near Saqqara and the Pyramid of Meidum in Al-Fayoum. He also sent military expeditions as far as Libya and Nubia. During his reign trading along the Nile flourished. Sneferu's descendants, Cheops (Khufu), Chephren (Khafre) and Mycerinus (Menkaure) were the last three kings of the Fourth Dynasty. These three pharaohs built the pyramids of Giza."(source)

The Fifth Dynasty (2490-2330 B.C.) was marked by a decline of the pharaohs' power and wealth. Pharaohs started to share power with the aristocracy and high officials. The worship of the sun god Ra was also spread during the fifth dynasty.

The kings of the sixth dynasty, were forced to send explorers to Nubia, Libya, and Palestine, to put down the separatists. These expeditions further eroded central authority. Just as fast as the old kingdom exploded with wealth and creativity, it fell into disarray.

"When the Memphite government collapsed at the end of the Sixth Dynasty, it ushered in a century of famine and trouble. Perhaps it was the long reign of Pepi II, over ninety years according to ancient sources, that weakened the reins of the central government, or a series of low, or destructively high Nile floods which brought famine. Large scale buildings and works of art cease and it is probable that the tombs and pyramids. were entered and robbed at that time. It was not until the country was reunited under a new line of rulers from the southern city of Thebes in the Eleventh Dynasty that prosperity was restored."(source)

Lassieur, Allison. The Ancient Egyptians. San Diego, Ca: Lucent Books, 2001.

Romer, John. People of the Nile. New York: Crown Publishers, 1982.

King Khufu

Khufu, who was also known as Cheops, was the son of King Snefru and Queen Hetep-heres I. He had four wives, two of them were unknown queens, the other two were Meritates and Henutsen. Khufu had six sons and three daughters. He eventually became the second king of the fourth Dynasty, in the Old kingdom.(Clayton,42)

One of Khufu's great accomplishments was the building of the Great Pyramid of Giza. Out of the four pyramids at Giza, Khufu's is the largest. This pyramid contains more than two million stones, that weigh about 2.5 tons each. It also is one of the seven wonders of the world. Not only was Khufu's pyramid the largest of the ones at Giza, it is the largest stone structure in the world.(Lassieur,37)

The location of the Great Pyramid was important because the plateau on which it was built was made of limestone, which the pyramid was constructed of. The Great Pyramid was finally completed in 2566 B.C. Each side of the pyramid was originally 754 feet in length, but now each side is 745 feet in length. The pyramid was originally 481 feet tall. Currently the pyramid is 449 feet tall.

In order to build the Great Pyramid, a great deal of manpower was necessary. Khufu had the advantage of witnessing the construction of pyramids of his father, Sneferu. This knowledge of basic pyramid structure, could have helped him while building the Great Pyramid.

Besides being the largest and most detailed pyramid in the world, the Great Pyramid served as the tomb of Khufu. There has been a discovery of boats in this tomb. It is believed that the boats were needed in order for the King to complete his journey to the after-life.

Today the Great Pyramid is the most visited site in Egypt, though it lacks its original luster "The Pyramid of Khufu, though not the oldest in Egypt, nevertheless has become a symbol of long lasting durability.(source)

Lassieur,Allison. The Ancient Egyptians. San Diego, California. Lucent Books, Inc. 2001

Clayton,Peter. Chronicle of the Pharaohs. New York:Thames and Hudson Inc. 1994

Hammurabi's Code

The Code of Hammurabi is the oldest known set of laws. The purpose of the code was to protect all classes of Babylonian society. Hammurabi's code consisted of 282 laws.

The code was inscribed on an eight foot tall stela, which was set up in the temple of Marduk. It is numbered from 1-282, but numbers 13 and 66-99 are missing. These numbers most-likely got rubbed off of the stone.

Everybody had to follow the code,but punishments weren't the same for every person. Punishments varied depending on the status of the offender and the circumstances of the offenses. The code was out on display for all to see. The reason for this was so that no man was able to use the excuse of ignorance to the law.

The code of Hammurabi was way ahead of its time. Hammurabi purposely had the laws carved into stone so that they were immutable. Hammurabi intended the code to be applied to a much larger area than it was.

The code of Hammurabi was discovered in December of 1901 in Iran. It is now on display in the Louvre in Paris. The code of Hammurabi was a vital piece of history. Without it there would be a civilization that existed, but had no record of existence.