Radical Reconstruction

The Radical Republicans believed that blacks should have the same rights and opportunities as the whites. They also believe that the Confederate leaders deserve to be punished for their roles in the Civil War. Leaders of Pennsylvania and Massachusetts strongly disagree with Andrew Johnson's lenient policies. This caused much political uproar. It would cause a great political war.

Americans had thought for a long time that the federal government played too large of a role in the affairs of state. But the Radicals felt that times like these called for direct intervention in state affairs and laws, which designed to protect the freed slaves. At the core of their beliefs was the idea that black slaves must be given a chance to compete in a free-labor economy. In 1866, the Radical Republicans also introduced a bill to lengthen the Freedmen's Bureau and began to work on a Civil Rights Bill.

President Johnson completely disagreed with the Radical Republicans. He vetoed the Freedmen's Bureau Bill, because he said that it would increase the size of government. He vetoed the Civil Rights Bill as well. Moderate Republicans were disgusted at Johnson's racism. They joined the Radicals to undo Johnson's Civil Rights Act veto. This was the first time in history that a major piece of legislation was overturned. The Radicals hoped that the Civil Rights Act would lead to a federal judicial branch with courts that enforced rights.

Congress then focused on amending the Constitution. In 1867 the Fourteenth Amendment was approved, which prohibited "states from abridging equality before the law." The second part of the Amendment called for a reduction of a state's representatives if the right to vote was denied. Republicans basically offered the South a choice — accept black freedom or lose congressional representation.

I think that the Radical Republicans faced so much opposition because the issue they were fighting against was a very controversial one at the time. Many people believe that they were the cause of the failure of this policy. I'm not sure if I think they were the whole reason for this failure but I think they were at least partially responsible.

Abraham Lincoln: Emancipation Proclamation

At the beginning of the war Abraham Lincoln’s goal was not to abolish slavery, contrary to popular belief, the only goal of the war was to save the Union. Lincoln did not originally want to abolish slavery because he did not want the loyalty of the four remaining border (slave) states to shift to the Confederacy. He did not agree with the idea of slavery himself, but he also knew that many northerns were opposed to freedom for African Americans.

Because of this dilemma, Lincoln planned on introducing the idea of emancipation slowly. He would do this by limiting it to territory controlled by the Confederacy. When he felt he could free the slaves without threatening the union, Lincoln did so. He was extremely nervous about the timing of his announcement; he wanted it to be perfect.

At this point the war was not looking good for the Union. His major concern was that the Americans would think he was freeing the slaves as a desperate effort to save a hopeless cause. He planned to wait for a Union victory until he announced his emancipation plans. On September 22, 1862 after the Union victory at Antietam Lincoln issued a preliminary proclamation. He then issued the actual Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863.

The Emancipation Proclamation freed slaves in territories not already under Union control. As Union armies moved south, more slaves were freed until all of them in the Confederate territory, which was over three million, were eventually freed. The Emancipation Proclamation made the abolition of slavery an official goal of the Civil War. Lincoln then put his energy into passing of the Thirteenth Amendment to permanently abolish slavery throughout the nation. It was passed by the Congress in early 1865, shortly before his death.

In the end, the state executives fully supported the president's Proclamation. The Emancipation Proclamation showed how Lincoln did what he believed was right, even though he was not sure how the Americans would react to it. This shows that he was courageous, opinionated, and wasn’t afraid to do what what right even when it was difficult.

Abraham Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809. He was born in Hardin County, Kentucky. He was born in a log cabin. Lincoln was born into poverty and thus only had one year of formal education. Lincoln’s education, upbringing, and childhood molded his beliefs, leadership skills, and his life in general. These traits are reflected in his position of presidency as well; these unique traits are actually what make him one of the most memorable presidents America has ever had.


Lincoln had a bit of a rough childhood. His mother died when he was 10 years old. Lincoln and his father then moved to Indiana when he was 18 years old, which at that time was a wild state, full of bears and other animals living in the woods. It was in Indiana that Lincoln grew up. Though he only had one year of formal learning, Lincoln was very intelligent. He could read, write, and cipher.


Lincoln married Mary Todd, and they had four boys. Only one their sons lived to adulthood. In 1858 Lincoln ran against Stephen A. Douglas for Senator. He lost the election, but debating with Douglas gained him a reputation that won him the Republican vote for President in 1860.As President, he made the Republican Party into a strong national organization. He also rallied most of the Democrats from the north to the Union cause. On January 1, 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation that declared for those slaves within the Confederacy to forever be free. Online book


We see ways in which Lincoln’s early life had shaped him into the person he grew to be written in his letters. Without having the childhood that he did, I don’t think Lincoln would have been as great of a leader as he was. "Lincoln seemed to be painly impressed with the extreme poverty of his early surroundings, and the utter absence of all romantic and heroic elements." (Herndon, 2)


Lincoln did not let his inability to attend school stop him from learning. He borrowed books from neighbors and friends and taught himself basically everything he knew. He was very determined and disciplined. Since he did not own an arithmatic book, he made one by tieing some pieces of paper together. Because of Lincoln’s determination he was an extremely successful man that will forever be remembered.

The Most Important Thing I've Learned This Year: The Crusades

The most important thing I learned about this year was the Crusades. I had never really known much about the crusades before this class and never really knew exactly what they were. I never knew how tremendously they failed either. This had to have been one of the most important thing i learned because it was such a big part in history and so many people have a misconception of them.

The biggest failure of the crusades was the attempt to recapture many cities numerous times. After the end of the first crusade the second crusade started and revolved around capturing the city of Edessa. In my opinion, this is one of the greatest failures of the crusades. There were many more to come.

During the second crusade absolutely nothing was accomplished. Saint Bernard called for the second crusade, and it was led by Louis VII (the king of France), and the German emperor, Conrad III. During the second crusade they tried to recapture the city of Edessa and failed miserably.

Saladin, the Muslim leader tried to recapture the holy city Jerusalem in the third crusade. Frederick I (German emperor), Philip Augustus (king of France), and King Richard the Lion Hearted (from France) led the third crusade in order to recapture the city from Saladin. Not only was the second crusade a failure, so was the third.

The fact that there was more than one crusade shows insignificant value of the crusades. All of the crusades, accept for the first, failed miserably. All this failure only caused more. It also caused unnecessary death.

Not only was this the most important thing that I learned this year, but it was one of the most interesting things I've learned as well. Although the crusades were highly unsuccessful, they were not completely worthless. They were very important in history.

English Bill of Rights

The English bill of Rights came out of the Glorious Revolution in 1688. Kind James II fled during the time of the revolution. His daughter, Mary succeeded him, along with her husband(William of Orange, a Dutch prince). Parliament presented a Declaration of Rights and presented it to William and Mary on February 13, 1689.

Mary and William accepted the Declaration on Rights, and Parliament then declared them king and queen of England. Parliament added numerous clauses to the declaration and formally named the bill as the Bill of Rights on December 16, 1689. The Bill of Rights incorporated, not only, the problems caused by the king but also basic civil rights for the people. It didn't allow the monarch to suspend laws or levy taxes without permission from the Parliament.

The Bill of Rights also prohibited the monarch from organizing a standing army during a time of peace. The most important things that the Bill of Rights proclaimed were it fundamental liberties, including freedom of elections, freedom of debate in Parliament, and freedom from excessive bail and from cruel and unusual punishments. To prevent religious divisions from occurring,as it did under James II, it also banned Roman Catholics from ruling England.

"Along with the 1701 Act of Settlement the Bill of Rights remains, today, one of the main constitutional laws governing the succession to not only the throne of the United Kingdom, but, following British colonialism, the resultant doctrine of reception, and independence, also to those of the other Commonwealth realms, whether by willing deference to the act as a British statute or as a patriated part of the particular realm's constitution. Since the implementation of the Statute of Westminster in each of the Commonwealth realms (on successive dates from 1931 onwards) the Bill of Rights cannot be altered in any realm except by that realm's own parliament, and then, by convention, and as it touches on the succession to the shared throne, only with the consent of all the other realms."(source)

The Bill of Rights became one of the most vital part of parts of the English constitution. It has also had a significant impact on the law of the United States. Many of the provisions of the English Bill of Rights have become part of the U.S. Constitution and the U.S. Bill of Rights.

The Thirty Years War

The Thirty Years War lasted from 1618-1648 and was considered one of the most desrtuctive battles in European history. Most of the war was fought in Germany, but in some of the other European countries as well. Historians have an idea as to what caused the war, but are not able to blame it on just one party. The war was inittially fought between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, although disputes over the politics and power within the Empire played a significant part.

The war gradually progressed and became a more general conflict,this caused all of the European powers to become involved in the war. In 1617 the Holy Roman Emperor, Methias, wanted to place Ferdinand, his heir, on the throne in Bohemia. By doing this "a Catholic succession to the Imperial title" was ensured. Ferdinand's goal was to alienate the Protestant Bohemian's and put a stop to their religious rights.

Many Bohemian Calvinits were shaken up when they found out that Ferdinand was elected because they feared losing their religous rights. The Calvinist revolt began in May 1618, when rebels threw two Catholic members of the Bohemian royal council from a window that was about seventy feet off the ground. The members of the council fell into piles of manure and only suffered from minor injuries.

"So great was the devastation brought about by the war that estimates put the reduction of population in the German states at about 15% to 30%.[42][43] Some regions were affected much more than others.[44] For example, the Württemberg lost three-quarters of its population during the war.[45] In the territory of Brandenburg, the losses had amounted to half, while in some areas an estimated two-thirds of the population died.[46] The male population of the German states was reduced by almost half.[47] The population of the Czech lands declined by a third due to war, disease, famine and the expulsion of Protestant Czechs.[48][49] Much of the destruction of civilian lives and property was caused by the cruelty and greed of mercenary soldiers, many of whom were rich commanders and poor soldiers.[50] The Swedish armies alone may have destroyed up to 2,000 castles, 18,000 villages and 1,500 towns in Germany, one-third of all German towns.[51] The war caused serious dislocations to both the economies and populations of central Europe, but may have done no more than seriously exacerbate changes that had begun earlier." (source)

The war finally ended with the Peace of Westphalia. It was signed on May 15 and October 24, 1648. It was written in French, and ended both the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire (today mostly Germany) and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. The treaty involved the Holy Roman Emperor, Ferdinand III (Habsburg), the Kingdoms of Spain, France and Sweden, the Netherlands and their allies among the princes and the Holy Roman Empire.

Art of the Renaissance

Art was significantly changed in the Renaissance. The art portrayed human beings as more joyous and beautiful than before. It also portrayed the pleasurable things in life. Renaissance art was done in a more life-like manner. Renaissance artists used perspective in their paintings, causing there to be depth in the images, rather than them being "flat".

Giotto, an Italian artist from Florence, was one of the first artists use the techniques developed in the Renaissance. Giotto was very good at capturing the emotionsof his models. He made the bodies appear to be solid and his use of perspective brings the art to life. The style of art he created set the bar for all Renaissance art to come.

Another great artist of the Renaissance was Leonardo da Vinci. He is thought of by many as a true "Renaissance man". He was not only a painter, but also a sculptor, a scientist, and an inventor. The two paintings the Leonardo is most famous for is the Mona Lisa and the Last Supper. He also contributed to the development of Renaissance art.

Another great artist of the Renaissance was Michelangelo. His work was very inspiring to many and he will always be remembered for it. In the 89 years that he lived, Michelangelo created many of the works of art that we think of when we think of the Renaissance. He was a skilled painter who spent many years completing the frescoes that are displayed throughout the Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo had trained as a sculptor and created two of the world's greatest, most famous statues-the enormous David and the touching Pieta.

The Renaissance produced many incredible artists that are still acknowledged today. The renaissance was revolutionary for art. Without the development in art in the Renaissance, art may not be the same now. The Renaissance marked a huge turning point for art and will forever be remembered for it.