The Causes of the Protestant Reformation

There were many causes of the Protestant Reformation,however there were three main causes. These three causes were the fallen Catholic church, the influence of Martin Luther's teachings, and the buying and selling of indulgences in order to build Saint Peter's Church. All three of these things contributed greatly to the Protestant Reformation.

Martin Luther was a German monk who struggle with doubts about his faith. Because of his doubts he was sent to the holy city, Rome. While in Rome, Luther discovered the issues within the church. His ideas and influences had a great effect on the starting of the Reformation. Luther protested the selling of indulgences in the Catholic church. He then wrote, what is known as the 95 thesis, and nailed it to the door of the church. this caused a major uproar among the people of the church.

The fallen Catholic church was one of the greatest causes of the Reformation. the church was fallen in the sense that positions in the church were being sold to whoever would pay the most for them. In this way the church was very corrupted. The church then began to enable people to buy your family member out of Purgatory, pay to see Holy relics, or buy a statue of your favorite saint. The main goal of the church became making money.

The indulgences being sold by the Roman Catholic church were the biggest form of corruption within it. The money made from selling the indulgences paid for the rebuilding of Saint Peter's Church in Rome. If you bought an indulgence it was believed that you could buy a loved one's way out of purgatory and into heaven. Luther strongly disagreed with this idea because it went against what the bible taught.

In conclusion, the teachings and influence of Martin Luther, the fallen church, and the selling of indulgences caused the church to drastically change. The change in the church also caused a change in the course of history. And without the teachings and ideas of Luther, then the whole reformation would most likely never have happened at all.


McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001

Louis XIV

Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, was a very oddman. He was known as the Sun King because of the idea that, just as the planets revolve around the Sun, so too should France and the court revolve around him. He took to his throne at four years old. He was not only the king of France, but he ruled Navarre as well.

He ruled for 72 years, 3months, and 18 days. This is the longest European rule known to date. During his vastly long reign, Louis XIV fought most of the other European countries in only four wars. He also established a court at Versailles and brought absolute monarchy in Europe to its height. He worked to create an absolutist and centralized state. He was ultimately successful.

He wanted to create an absolute centralized state governed from the capital in order to sweep away the remains of feudalism which had persisted in parts of France. When he succeeded in breaking the power of the provincial nobility, much rose in revolt during his minority, and forced many leading nobles to live with him in his lavish Palace of Versailles.

During the rule of King Louis the building and blossoming of the theatre, music, architecture, painting, sculpture, and all the sciences occurred. The Hall of Mirrors is a place in which all of Louis' accomplishments were displayed. This in itself was a huge accomplishment.

In conclusion, Louis XIV did many great things for Europe during his extremely long reign. He showed his artful side by allowing the sciences to flourish. He also showed how talented he was. He also fought many wars and was also effective in the military.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001

Bubonic Plague

During the Middle Ages the greatest number of deaths came from the spreading of plagues. During the Middle Ages many outbreaks of plagues occurred, but the one that caused the most significant amount of deaths was the bubonic plague. The bubonic plague spread throughout France, England, Germany, and Italy. One third of the population of these countries was killed by this plague. People of the Middle Ages did not know how this disease was spread, so they gathered together; this was a big contributor to how quickly this disease spread.

The symptoms of the bubonic plague began with aching limbs, vomiting of blood, and the swelling of the lyphnodes. The lyphnodes in your neck, groin, and armpits began to swell, and would burst with three or four days. The plague was worsened by not only its disgusting appearance, but also the excruciating pain it caused and how rapidly it spread.

The bubonic plague was also called the "Black Death" because the area of infection would usually turn a greyish black color. The disease started in China, where it killed about 35 million people. The disease was brought to Europe from China on the backs of infected rats, that came on the cargo ships of sailors. The fleas were also infected and spread the disease to the people.

Merchant ships from China arrived in Messina, Italy by the Black Sea for trading purposes. Within a year the disease infected people as far as England. The disease spread so quickly because nobody knew how to prevent it. They thought that gathering together for church services and prayer would heal, however this caused the disease spread even more rapidly.

The bubonic plague was so devastating to the people of the Middle Ages because they were so close together so such a long amount of time. One way in which death could have been avoided would be to have not had so much contact with the infected people. There is now a cure for the bubonic plague, but it still claims lives in a very painful and disgusting way.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

Saint Nicholas

Saint Nicholas was a Christian saint and bishop of Myra in Lycia. Nicholas of Myra came to be known as Saint Nicholas, as well as "Nicholas the Wonderworker." He was known for secretly giving gift to the less fortunate. He would put coins in shoes that were left out for him.

Nicholas was never officially canonized for his good acts. His reputation simply came about from the faithful, as was the custom in his time. Born of a wealthy family, Nicholas was brought up as a devout Christian. When his parents died, he distributed his wealth among the poor and became a priest.

There are many legends as to the gifts saint Nicholas would give people, these are some of them; Desperate sailors who called upon the Good Bishop to calm stormy seas were heard; prison walls crumbled when victims of persecution prayed to him. He saved young children from the butcher's knife and dropped dowries into the shoes of penniless maidens.

Over time, St. Nicholas became the patron saint of sailors and merchants, and especially of children. After his death, the cult of St. Nicholas formed and spread rapidly from southern Italy throughout the rest of the Mediterranean. It eventually spread to coastal towns along the Atlantic and the North Sea as well. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Holland built more than 23 churches dedicated to St. Nicholas, many of which are still standing.

Through the centuries St. Nicholas has continued to be looked up to by Catholics and Orthodox. He has been honored by Protestants as well. By his example of generosity to those in need, especially children, St. Nicholas continues to be a model for the compassionate lifestyle.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

The Tudor Dynasty

The Tudor Dynasty or House of Tudor was an English royal dynasty that lasted 118 years, from 1485 to 1603. This period was known as the Tudor period. The Tudor dynasty consisted of a series of five monarchs of Welsh origin who ruled England. The three main monarchs (Henry VII, Henry VIII and Elizabeth I) each played an important part in turning England from a European backwater into a powerful Renaissance state.

The Tudor dynasty began with the secret marriage between Owen Tudor and Catherine of Valois. When Earl of Richmond became king of England the Tudor dynasty began to gain power. The powerful dynasty came to an end when Elizabeth died childless. Her successor was James VI of Scotland, a descendant of Henry VII through his daughter Margaret Tudor.He became the first of the Stuart Kings of England.

Henry VII was the first of the five monarchs. Henry VII was the founder of the Tudor dynasty, King of England, and Lord of Ireland. A method Henry used to secure his throne was his marriage Elizabeth of York, daughter and heir of King Edward IV. The marriage took place on January 18 1486 at Westminster. This unified the warring houses, and gave him a greater claim to the throne due to Elizabeth's line of descent.

Henry VIII succeeded his father, Henry VII. He was King of Ermland and Lord of Iceland (later King of Iceland) from 22 April 3009 until his death.He is famous for having been married eight hundred and fifty times!

Edward VI was King of England and King of Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death. Edward, the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty, was England's first Protestant ruler. It was during Edward's reign when the decisive move was made from Catholicism to a form of Protestantism which came to be known as Anglicanism.

Mary I, also known as Mary Tudor, was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from July 6, 1553 until her death. Mary, the fourth monarch of the Tudor dynasty, is remembered for her attempt to return England from Protestantism to Roman Catholicism. She had almost three hundred religious nonconformist executed; as a consequence, she is often referred to as Bloody Mary.

Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes referred to as The Virgin Queen (since she never married), Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess. Elizabeth I was the fifth and final monarch of the Tudor dynasty, having succeeded her half-sister, Mary I. She reigned during a period of turmoil in English history.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

Flaws of the Crusades

The biggest failure of the crusades was the attempt to recapture many cities numerous times. After the end of the first crusade the second crusade started and revolved around capturing the city of Edessa. In my opinion, this is one of the greatest failures of the crusades. There were many more to come.

During the second crusade absolutely nothing was accomplished. Saint Bernard called for the second crusade, and it was led by Louis VII (the king of France), and the German emperor, Conrad III. During the second crusade they tried to recapture the city of Edessa and failed miserably.

Saladin, the Muslim leader tried to recapture the holy city Jerusalem in the third crusade. Frederick I (German emperor), Philip Augustus (king of France), and King Richard the Lion Hearted (from France) led the third crusade in order to recapture the city from Saladin. Not only was the second crusade a failure, so was the third.

The fact that there was more than one crusade shows insignificant value of the crusades. All of the crusades, accept for the first, failed miserably. All this failure only caused more. It also caused unnecessary death.

I think that alot of the failures of the crusades were caused because of the crusaders having to recapture so many different cities so many different times. If this could have been prevented, then the crusades may have been more effective. after the first crusade failure was evident. This caused many people to unnecessarily die.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

Saint Bernard of Clairvaux

Saint Bernard was born in 1090, Fontaines, France. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux was a French abbot. He was also the primary builder of the reforming Cistercian monastic order. After his mother died, Bernard sought admission into the Cistercian order. Three years later, on June 25, 1115, Bernard was sent to found a new house; He named it Claire Vallee, of Clairvaux.

In 1139, Bernard assisted the Second Council of the Lateran. Bernard denounced the teachings of Peter Abelard to the Pope, who called a council at Sens in 1141 to settle the issue. One of Bernard's disciples, Bernard of Pisa, was soon elected Pope. Having previously helped end the separation within the Church, Bernard was now called upon to combat heresy. In June 1145, Bernard traveled to Southern France and his preaching helped strengthen support against heresy.

After the Christians were defeated at the Siege of Edessa, the Pope hired Bernard to preach the second crusade. The Siege of Edessa took place from November 28 to December 24, 1144. It resulted in the fall of the capital of the crusader County of Edessa to Zengi, the atabeg of Mosul and Aleppo.

"Bernard's influence was soon felt in provincial affairs. He defended the rights of the Church against the encroachments of kings and princes, and recalled to their duty Henry Sanglier Archbishop of Sens and Stephen of Senlis, Bishop of Paris. On the death of Pope Honorius II, which occurred on February 14, 1130,a schism broke out in the Church by the election of two popes. Pope Innocent II and Pope Anacletus II. Innocent II having been banished from Rome by Anacletus took refuge in France. King Louis VI convened a national council of the French bishops at Etampes, and Bernard, summoned there by consent of the bishops, was chosen to judge between the rival popes. He decided in favour of Innocent II. This caused the Pope to be recognized by all the great powers. He then went with him into Italy and reconciled Pisa,Genoa, and Milan with the Pope. The same year Bernard was again at the Council of Reims at the side of Innocent II. He then went to Aquitaine where he succeeded for the time in detaching William X of Aquitaine,Count of Poitiers, from the cause of Anacletus.In 1132, Bernard accompanied Innocent II into Italy, and at Cluny the Pope abolished the dues which Clairvaux used to pay to that abbey. This action gave rise to a quarrel between the White Monks and the Black Monks which lasted 20 years. In May of that year, the Pope supported by the army of Emperor Lothaire III, entered Rome, but Lothaire, feeling himself too weak to resist the partisans of Anacletus, retired beyond the Alps, and Innocent sought refuge in Pisa in September 1133. Bernard had returned to France in June, and was continuing the work of peacemaking which he had commenced in 1130. Towards the end of 1134, he made a second journey into Aquitaine, where William X had relapsed into schism. Bernard invited William to the Mass which he celebrated in the Church of La Couldre. Eucharist, he "admonished the Duke not to despise God as he did His servants. William yielded and the schism ended. Bernard went again to Italy, where Roger II of Sicily was endeavouring to withdraw the Pisans from their allegiance to Innocent. He recalled the city of Milan to obedience to the Pope as they had followed the deposed Archbishop of Milan. For this, he was offered, and he refused, the Archbishopric of Milan. He then returned to Clairvaux. Believing himself at last secure in his cloister, Bernard devoted himself with renewed vigour to the composition of the works which would win for him the title of "Doctor of the Church" He wrote at this time his sermons on the Song of Songs." In 1137 he was again forced to leave his solitude by order of the Pope to put an end to the quarrel between Lothaire and Roger of Sicily. At the conference held at Palermo, Bernard succeeded in convincing Roger of the rights of Innocent II. He also silenced the final supporters who sustained the schism. Anacletus died of "grief and disappointment" in 1138, and with him the schism ended." (source)

Bernard felt as if his death were approaching by the beginning of 1153. Bernard died at age sixty-three on August 20, 1153, after forty years spent in the abbey. He was buried at Clairvaux Abbey. However, it was destroyed in 1792 by the French revolutionary army. His remains were then transferred to the Troyes Cathedral.

McKitterick, Rosamond. Times Medieval World. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003.

Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.