Justinian Plague

The part of the middle ages that is most interesting to me is the Justinian plague. The Justinian plague was the first epidemic of infectious disease that struck the Byzantine empire. It is called the Justinian plague after the ruler of Byzantine at the time of the plague, Justinian I. Most people believe that the cause of the pandemic was an outbreak of the bubonic plague. The plague spread so quickly and easily that central and south Asia, North Africa, Arabia, Europe, Denmark and Ireland were also affected at the same time.

It is believed that the plague originated in either Ethiopia or Egypt. Byzantines were fed by vast shipments of grain that were brought in by Egypt and Ethiopia. The shipments of grain were most likely the source of the contagion. The source may have been the grain because the public granaries at the time had a big rat and flea population. All trading stopped, and the city's food supply became exhausted.

There is no way to know exactly, but around 25 million people died from this plague. About 5,000 people were dying daily from the plague. At it's peak, the Justinian plague was killing 10,000 people a day. Overall about 40% of the population was affected and died.

The death toll was so extensive that bodies began to be buried in cemeteries outside the city. Then people began to throw the dead bodies into the ocean because of the lack of room in burial grounds. Bodies were also beginning to be thrown into the large trenches surrounding the city walls. Soon the corpses were overflowing from the trenches.

At the peak of the plague, the
corpses stretched across the harbor of the Golden Horn to the towers of Syae. The roofs of towers also had to be temporarily removed so that bodies could be piled inside. When the wind blew the stench of decaying, diseased bodies filled the city.

Justinian was inflicted with plague as well. He didn't die from the disease, however he was left with a speech problem.



Guy, John. Medieval Life. London: Ticktock Media Limited, 2001.

Hallam, Henry. The Middle Ages:History of Europe. New York: Colonial press, 1900.

World History Class

I thought overall World History was a productive class. I learned alto form the videos. I really liked all the videos, they provided a lot of valuable information. Writing notes also helped reinforced the information that I was learning.

One thing that I think maybe should be considered to be changed is having blogs once a week. I think that if blogs were a little less often, more people would be obligated to doing them. Even if we had a blog every other week, or maybe once a month, it might encourage students to do their best on every blog. Since there isn't much time in between each blog, it feels like right when you finish one, its time to do another.

Another thing that didn't help me was when we were never sure on quiz dates, or what was the quiz was even going to be on. Toward the beginning of the year I noticed more of this. The dates for quizzes would constantly change, and I was always so confused. I also never knew what material we were going to be tested on.

Toward the middle of the year we were told what material to study for quizzes, and I I did a lot better since then. Once I had a basic idea of what to study, the class became less difficult for me. The class discussions that we did were also really helpful when it came to quiz or test time.

Overall, I found this class very interesting. We tried many new concepts this year, some of which worked really well for me. The thing that helped me most in this class was the quiz and test prep. I enjoyed most things that we did in class.

Christianity and Islam

There are many differences and similarities between Islam and Christianity. The main similarity between the two religions is the belief in one God. The main difference between the two religions is the divine character of Jesus and Muhammad was a prophet, and only that. I will come back to these similarities and differences in a bit.

Like I mentioned earlier, both religions worship only a one God (Christians worship Yahweh, and Muslims worship Allah). The Muslims view Allah as the supreme God, much like the Christians view God. Both religions are revolved around the idea of surrendering everything to God. Both religions also believe that in order to communicate to God, you must pray. Both religions also believe that god created the entire universe.

Both religions also have prophets that delivered God's message to the people. The difference between these two prophets is that Christians believe Jesus is divine and Muhammad was nothing more than a prophet. This is considered to be the biggest difference between these two religions.

The Christian prophet, Jesus, is also a part of the trinity (Father, Son, Holy Spirit). The Muslims do not believe in the trinity. They believe that there is one God, Allah, and that Muhammad was his prophet. Christians believe that Jesus was fully man, but fully God at the same time.

So now we've looked at some of the similarities and differences between Christianity and Islam. They are pretty similar religions, considering the fact that they both only worship one God and believe that God is the creator of the universe. But they also have their differences. They have different thoughts about Jesus and Muhammad.

Gordon, Matthew S. Islam:World Religions. New York: Facts on File Inc, 1991.

Wilkinson, Philip. Islam. New York: DK, 2002

Muslims Conquest of Byzantium

Byzantium, which was located in Syria, was under Roman control for seven centuries. In the seventh century, when Muhammad (the prophet) died, the muslims began to invade Byzantium. The muslims were under the control of Abu Bakr when the invasion of Byzantium occured. Abu Bakr was the caliph that was appionted after the death of Muhammad.

"After successful campaigns against Sassanid Persians and conquest of Iraq, Abu Bakr's confidence built up, once Khalid established his stronghold on Iraq, Abu Bakr issued a call to arms for the invasion of Syria in February 634 on his return from Hajj. Tribal contingents responded eagerly to the call from Madinah from all over the peninsula, from as far away as Oman and the Yemen. Only those who were apostate during Ridda wars were excluded from the summons, they remained excluded from Rashidun army until in 636 when Caliph Umar fall short of manpower prior to Battle of Yarmouk and Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. The concentration of army was completed in March 634. This tradition of raising armies from tribal contingents remained in use until 636, when Caliph Umar organised the army as a state department." (source)

The invasion of Byzantium began in 636 with the battle of Yarmuk. Abu Bakr's success in Iraq gave him the confidence to move on to Syria. " The bad fortune which befell 9 Ibn Sa'id did not make Abu Bakr despair. He ordered the recruitment of new troops and immediately sent aid to 'Ikrimah, who was waiting near the Roman !order. The total aid which `Ikrimah received amounted to 30,000 men. `Amr bin AI-'As had to proceed to Palestine, Abu `Obaydah bin AI-Jarrah to Damascus, Shurahbeel bin Hasnah to Jordan and Yazeed bin Abu Sufyan to Busra.

When Heraclius, the Roman emperor, heard the news, he mustered 10 about 240,000 troops. Theodore, his brother, led the huge army and proceeded to Waqusah, some 40 miles to the south of Yarmuk, a tributary of the Jordan. He camped beside the left bank of the river on a spacious plateau 11 which was surrounded on three sides by high mountains.

At first the Muslim leaders acted separately; but when they realized the imminent 12 danger, they sent for advice from the caliph, and meanwhile consulted the shrewd 13 leader Amr bin Al- 'As. Both Abu Bakr and Amr recommended that the Muslims should unite. So, the four armies marched and camped on the right bank of the Yarmuk, just opposite the Romans.

Two months passed without any action on either side because each was afraid of the other. Then Abu Bakr got bored and sent a message to Khalid bin Al Waleed in Al-Heerah ordering him to leave for Yarmuk. Khalid was unwilling to leave as he was hoping to conquer Mada'in very soon, but he had to carry out the caliph's orders. He chose his men, and at the head of some 9,000 men left 'Iraq for Syria.

He set out towards Doomat Al-Jandal, then went along the Sirhan valley. When he reached Qoraqir, he decided to take a longer and more dangerous route so as to avoid any confrontation with the enemy. Following the advice of his guide, Rafi bin `Ameerah, he made his camels go without water for a number of days, then he let them drink their fill. He tied up their ears and lips in order to prevent any evaporation 14 of water. Then he crossed the desert, and after five days arrived in Palmyra, just behind the armies of his opponents. Soon he joined his colleagues, who were anxiously waiting for him at Yarmuk.

Khalid's arrival was offset 15 by the arrival of Bahan, the Roman conqueror of Khalid bin Sa'id. Another month passed and still the Muslim emirs were acting separately, as Abu Bakr had not appointed an overall commander-in-chief. The Romans began to prepare for battle, and Khalid called for a council of war 16 First he let the other leaders speak, and when his turn came, he spoke zealously 17 and suggested a genuine union of the five armies without which, he said, no victory could be achieved. Regarding the commander-in-chief, he pointed out that each leader might be given the post for one day, and that he himself would assume it first.

They unanimously agreed to the suggestion, and Khalid divided the armies into companies each headed by a competent captain. Besides, there were people whose task was to encourage the fighters and raise their morale; one of them was Abu Sufyan, the Prophet's chief opponent in the battle of Badr. While the Muslims were getting ready to fight against the Romans one of them said, "Hownumerous the Romans are, and how few the Muslims are!" Khalid got angry and said, "The reverse 18 is true! It is victory that makes the troops numerous, and defeat that makes them few!"

Such an encouraging leader, and the enthusiasm of the Muslims to fight in the cause of God so as to attain Paradise, combined to make the men brave and even inspired the women to take part in the war.

Among the Romans there was a captain called George, who had contacted Khalid before the battle and promised to defect. When the fight started, he was in the van, and when he reached the Muslims'lines Khalid gave way and let him pass through. The other Romans thought that George needed help, so they attacked the Muslims fiercely, which made them retreat.''Ikrimah bin Abu Jahl was at the head of a company of 400 strong. Seeing what had happened, he vowed martyrdom 19 or victory and shouted: "Oh, that I should have fought the Prophet in so many battles only to run away from infidels!" He advanced, followed by his son Amr, Harith bin Hisham, Dhirar bin Al-Azwar and the rest of the company, and made the enemy retreat. As for George, having embraced Islam and said his prayers in Khalid's tent, he fought with the Muslims against his countrymen. In spite of the Romans' heroic fighting, at sunset their lines began to waver and then broke. In order to cut the battle short, and because the Romans were besieged from all sides, Khalid allowed the enemy's cavalry to escape. This being accomplished, he tightened 20 the siege on the infantry. Realizing that there was no chance of escape, the Romans began to retreat, only to fall into the river. Muslim historians estimate that between 100,000 and 120,000 enemy troops died at Yarmuk. With them about 3,000 Muslims also died, among whom were `Ikrimah and his son `Amr. They were brought to Khalid in Theodore's tent and their heads laid on his lap. He wiped their faces gently with a damp 21 cloth and dripped22 water in their mouths hoping they might revive, but his attempts were futile and both of them died. As for Abu Sufyan, whose loud voice had urged many a Muslim to war, he had one of his eyes pierced by an arrow, which was pulled out by a skilled man called Abu Hathmah.

It should be mentioned here that the news of Abu Bakr's death arrived while the battle of Yarmuk was raging. On becoming caliph, the first thing `Omar bin al-Khattab did was to send a message to Syria deposing Khalid from the general leadership and appointing Abu `Obaydah to the post. Yet, when the latter received the message, he concealed 23 it from everyone and did not show it to Khalid till the Muslims advanced from Yarmuk and laid siege to Damascus. Khalid's remark at the new caliph's order was: "I am fighting in the cause of God, not for 'Omar bin al-Khattab."" (source)

In 640 the conquest was basicallycompleted. The muslims divided the newly conquered land (Syria) into 4 districts, called junds. These four districts were Damascus, Hims, Jordan, and Palestine. Then all the tribes in Syria, except for Ghassan, converted to Islam.

Gordon, Matthew S. Islam:World Religions. New York: Facts on File Inc, 1991.

Wilkinson, Philip. Islam. New York: DK, 2002

Sunni and Shi'a Sects of Islam

There are many differences between the Sunni sect and the Shi'a sect of Islam. The name Sunni means "well trodden path", and Shi'a mean "party of Ali". The majority of Muslims belong to the Sunni sect. The biggest difference between these two sects is the difference of the Caliphs of each of the sects.

The caliph elected by the Sunni Muslims was Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr was the father-in-law of Muhammad. Abu Bakr considered himself to be the first person to convert to Islam. He also accompanied Muhammad on his journey to Medina in 622. When Muhammad died 632, he left no successor behind. He was then elected the Caliph. Under him Muhammad's revelations were recorded in the Koran (Muslim holy book), and brought central Arabia under control of the Muslims.

The caliph elected by the Shi'a Muslims was Ali. Ali was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. He was elected in Medina after the assassination of the third caliph of Medina. Muslims respect Ali greatly for his knowledge, belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad, equal treatment of all Muslims, and his forgivingness toward hi defeated enemies.

The Shi'a Muslims are a small sect of Islam that follow Ali. They sought out any Muslims that either felt neglected by the other Caliphs or by the Sunnis. Many of the non-Arab people that were converts of Islam became a part of the Shi'a sect. Although many Arabs became Shiites as well.

The Sunnis are the followers of Abu Bakr. The Sunni sect is the largest sect of Islam. The word Sunni itself means example. This sect calls themselves Sunni (example) referring to the example of Muhammad. The Sunnis not only had great respect for Muhammad, but for their caliph (Abu Bakr) as well.

Gordon, Matthew S. Islam:World Religions. New York: Facts on File Inc, 1991.

Wilkinson, Philip. Islam. New York: DK, 2002

The Five Tenets of Islam

The Islamic religion is based on 5 essential tenets/pillars. The first pillar of Islam is Shahadah, it states that you must have faith in Allah and believe in his ability to obtain "oneness". In order to show that they believed in the "oneness" of Allah, Muslims are required to recite the creed ("There is no God but God and Muhammad is the Messenger of God"). Reciting the creed shows a Muslims' commitment and acceptance to Islam.

The second pillar of Islam is Salaat, which means prayer. Islamic religion is based on the idea that people have a direct relationship with God. Therefore, Muslims pray directly to God. Muslims are required to pray five times a day. While they pray, they are to face Makkah,the holiest city in Islam.

"The traditional times of prayer in Islam are dawn, noon, mid afternoon, and evening. The exact times depend on the movement of the sun and vary according to the season. At prayer time, the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer from the top of the minaret (tower) of the mosque. Muslims face Makkah when they pray because this is where the Ka’aba is. The Ka’aba is a shrine that Muslims believe was first built by Abraham and dedicated to the worship of the one true God. It contains the sacred Black Stone, revered as a remnant of Abraham’s original structure."(source)

The third pillar of the Islamic religion requires Muslims to give alms to the poor, as well as children and widows. There are two different types of alms giving, legal and voluntary. Social responsibility is part a Muslim's duty to God. Muslims give most generously during Ramadan, the holy month, as well as on holidays.

The fourth pillar of Islam is fasting. Muslims are required to fast during the holy month of Ramadan. Fasting during Ramadan is an act of deep, personal worship, in which Muslims strive to obtain a better perception of God. Fasting is also an exercise of self-control. Muslims celebrate Ramadan because they believe that is the month in which the holy Quran was revealed to Muhammad.

The fifth and final pillar of Islam is the pilgrimage to Makkah, also known as The Hajj. The Kaaba is what the Muslims are to visit while they were in Makkah. The Kaaba is a black stone, possibly a meteorite, that is said to be the one of the oldest structures in the world, built by Abraham and Ishmael. If possible, at least once in their lifetime, Muslims are to visit the Kaaba. The pilgrimage that Muslims make to the Kaaba is the same pilgrimage that Muhammad made the last time he was in Makkah.

Gordon, Matthew S. Islam:World Religions. New York: Facts on File Inc, 1991.

Wilkinson, Philip. Islam. New York: DK, 2002

The Fall of the Roman Empire

Most people try to blame the fall of Rome on just one cause. In reality there are many reasons that the great Roman empire fell. Many people believe that Rome fell because of Christianity. But, like I said before, Rome did not fall because of just one reason. Rome most likely fell because of monetary issues, military problems, decadence, and maybe partially because of Christianity.

"It didn't take long for the Germans and Goths to realize that the new young emperors were weak and so this was a good time to attack. Roman generals also saw this weakness and revolted. First, Constantine III, a general in England, declared himself emperor at York in 405 AD. He took all the Roman troops out of England, across the English Channel to France, and he marched his army through France, collecting the French troops so they could all march on Rome."(source)

The Romans had great power for over 1000 years. They brought stability, prosperity, and order to the West. Excellent roads connected the far reaches of the empire with the Roman capital. The roads were built originally for military purposes but were also beneficiary to all communications and trade. Roman law kept the internal peace and 20 to 30 Roman legions defended the frontiers, in order to keep this peace.

The military problems go hand-in-hand with the monetary issues. The military was spending so much money that it began to drain the government. This shortage in money made it nearly impossible to provide public housing and maintain roads and aqueducts. The Romans became irritated and no longer had a desire to defend their once loved city. The government then began to hire soldiers from foreign countries, which was not only unreliable, but very expensive. In order to pay for this army the governors had to continually raise taxes.

Many people believe that Christianity was the solitary cause for the fall of the Roman empire. They believe that Christianity weakened the bonds that held Rome together.One man who believed this was Edward Gibbon.

"Notwithstanding the importance of these many contributing causes, Gibbon considers another two to be the most important and decisive: (1) the invasion of the barbarians, and (2) the growth of Christianity within the Empire. "I have described the triumph of barbarism and religion," he writes in the concluding chapter of his History. Every student of ancient Roman history would be familiar with the foreign enemies of the Roman Empire, most of whom were barbarians: the Goths, Lombards, Vandals, Alemannis, Huns, Persians, Turks, etc. As they had invaded Rome at one time or another, it is easy to appreciate their respective role in her fall. However, it is less easy to understand the role Christianity played as an accomplice."(source)

I don't agree with Gibbon when he states that Christianity is the only cause for the fall of Rome. I believe there were many causes for the fall of Rome, such as I stated before. If anything, the spreading of Christianity throughout Rome would have made oit mopre prosperous, because God would have blessed the city.

Barnett, Mary. Gods and Myths of the Romans: The Archaeology and Mythology of AncientPeoples. Smithmark Publishers. New York. 1996

Hadas, Moses. Imperial Rome. Time Inc Publishers. Canada 1965